他说得好有道理，我竟然无言以对
这是之前Asking the Right Questions一书的笔记，回复关键字“atrq"可以查看所有章节的笔记。
第6章我们学习了论证中的"invisible glue" -- assumption, 这一章我们要学习的话题是"Fallacy"--“逻辑谬误”，我们把它认为是"错误的、扭曲的assumption", 只是因为这些assumption出现的频率太多，我们就给他们起了名字，例如我们熟悉的“稻草人” “红鲱鱼"...
这些逻辑谬误的共同特点是:
1. providing reasoning that requires erroneous or incorrect assumptions, thus making it irrelevant to the conclusion;
2. distracting us by making information seem relevant to the conclusion when it is not; and
3. providing support for the conclusion that depends on the conclusion's already being true.
http://existentialcomics.com/
了解一些fallacy的名字便于我们有效沟通：
We believe, however, that knowing the names of the most common fallacies can sensitize you to fallacies and also act as a language shortcut in communicating your reaction to faulty reasoning to others familiar with the names.
以下就是一些我们常碰到一些谬误。
1. Ad Hominem
An attack on the person, rather than directly addressing the person’s reasons.
The Latin phrase ad hominem means “against the man or against the person.” Ad hominem is considered a fallacy because the character or interests of individuals making arguments are usually not relevant to the quality of the argument being made. It is attacking the messenger instead of addressing the message.
我们往往会因为情绪失去理智对对方恶语相向人身攻击，而不是就事论事；我们会经常听到”他总干坏事，这次也一定是他干的“，这种reasoning就是fallacious.
还有一种fallacy叫 Ad hominem tu quoque, 叫做“你也一样”，它的逻辑是:
Person A makes claim X.
Person B asserts that A's actions or past claims are inconsistent with the truth of claim X.
Therefore X is false.
https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?vid=h0183brxa6p&width=500&height=375&auto=0
2. Slippery Slope
Making the assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events, when procedures exist to prevent such a chain of events.
我们常常会有一些“如意算盘”，可事实是哪怕你的计划再完美，也会有偶然事件发生，所以“完美的连锁反应”是不靠谱的一个假设。
3. Searching for perfect solutions fallacy
Falsely assuming that because part of a problem remains after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted.
我们会碰到这样的争论：这个方法能解决所有问题吗？不能，那么这就不是一个好方法。
4. Appeal to Popularity (Ad Populum)
An attempt to justify a claim by appealing to sentiments that large groups of people have in common; falsely assumes that anything favored by a large group is desirable.
网购的时候，我会偏向销售量，因为我觉得“大家都买的东西一定好”。这种从众效应也被称为Bandwagon effect。
5. Appeal to Questionable Authority
Supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks special expertise on the issue at hand.
这个fallacy很好理解，我们也经常碰到，例如我们会说”因为这是我妈说的！“ ”因为‘英语学习笔记’的Eric说过…”
6. Appeals to Emotions
The use of emotionally charged language to distract readers and listeners from relevant reasons and evidence. Common emotions appealed to are fear, hope, patriotism, pity, and sympathy.
打情感牌，例如最近的“美猴王上春晚事件”；制造恐慌，这也是Donald Trump非常擅长的一点。
7. Straw Person
Distorting our opponent’s point of view so that it is easy to attack; thus we attack a point of view that does not truly exist.
https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?vid=a0183do7ipi&width=500&height=375&auto=0
8. Either-Or (or False Dilemma)
Assuming only two alternatives when there are more than two.
“你讨厌我吗？“ ”不讨厌“ ”那就是你喜欢我了咯“
”我丑吗？” “不丑” “那我就是漂亮咯？”
“要么1+1=4，要么1+1=12” “1+1不等于4，那1+1一定等于12咯”
9. Explaining by Naming
Falsely assuming that because you have provided a name for some event or behavior, you have also adequately explained the event.
我们很多时候不屑或者懒于去寻找问题的根本原因，我们会总结为：因为他傻逼。因为他就是神经病。因为他脾气不好。”为什么学生不注意听讲总是做小动作？“ “因为他就是好动”，真正的原因其实要复杂的多。
10. The Planning Fallacy
The tendency for people or organizations to underestimate how long they will need to complete a task, despite numerous prior experiences of having underestimated how long something would take to finish.
容易让我们分散或者转移注意力的一些障眼法(sleigh of hand)。
11. Glittering Generality
The use of vague, emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to approve something without closely examining the reasons.
The picture above shows a delicious looking iced cafe mocha with the emotionally appealing phrase, “Creamy. Dreamy. Icy. Chocolatey.” The word, ‘Chocolatey’ is not even a proper word; yet, is used to draw one’s attention so that they will purchase their item. The connotation associated with the phrase is extremely positive, so the hope is that the customers will buy their product based on the advertisement. This type of technique is called Glittering Generality, using one’s positive feelings related with certain words to convince an audience to act, in this case, to purchase an item.
"英雄难过美人关"是不是也是这么回事:)
12. Red Herring
An irrelevant topic is presented to divert attention from the original issue and help to win an argument by shifting attention away from the argument and to another issue. The fallacy sequence in this instance is as follows: (a) Topic A is being discussed; (b) Topic B is introduced as though it is relevant to topic A, but it is not; and (c) Topic A is abandoned.
红鲱鱼当成转移焦点的代名词有几种不同的起源。其中的一种认为当初反打猎人士为了混淆猎犬的嗅觉，所以在猎场中四处放置烟熏过的鲱鱼，藉此转移猎犬的注意力；另外一种说法则认为是监狱逃犯为了诱骗追缉的警犬，所以在逃跑的路程外放置红鲱鱼，藉此顺利逃脱。
红鲱鱼和烟雾弹（smoke screen）经常被视作同一回事，但两者有细微的差异。红鲱鱼是刻意引入一个无关的议题以转移注意力；烟雾弹则是将主题搞得异常複杂而丧失焦点。
13. Begging the Question
An argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning.
首先要注意beg the question, 不是“求你来提问吧”“或者求你回答”，这是一个经常被native speaker误用的词。
这是一个fallacy, 是指“在论证时把不该视为理所当然的命题预设为理所当然"。例如"你该听我的，因为我说的对。例如:
A：我们不该说谎，即使是为了保护被追杀的朋友，也不该说谎
B：为什么我们不该说谎？
A: 因为说谎是不道德的。
B: 为什么说说谎是不道德的?
A: 因为我们不该说谎。
When you outline the structure of an argument, check the reasons to be sure that they do not simply repeat the conclusion in different words and check to see that the conclusion is not used to prove the reasons.
https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?vid=c018377sd2m&width=500&height=375&auto=0
最后看一个有关fallacy examples的小短片，顺便练下听力吧:
https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?vid=i0183g0kz1d&width=500&height=375&auto=0
回复"ATRQ"查看Asking the Right Questions的所有笔记。如果你喜欢这个篇文章，帮我点一下下面的广告也是一种支持哦:)