LANGUAGE

Volume 98, Number 3-4, 2022

LANGUAGE（SSCI二区，2021 IF：1.8）2022年第3-4期共发文19篇。研究论文涉及词序和谐、语音类型学、儿童语音产出、因纽特语的作格性、叙实性谓词、元认知与语言学习、并列结构、记录语言学、中缀、基于重音的语音和谐、多功能话语标记、社会语言认知、Behaghel 第二定律、语言政策、教学法、语言科学等。欢迎转发扩散！（2022年已更完）

目录

Issue 3

■ Dependency-length minimization and its limits: A possible role for a probabilistic version of the final-over-final condition, by Yingqi Jing, Damián E. Blasi, Balthasar Bickel, Pages 397-418.

■ Phonetic typology and articulatory constraints: The realization of secondary articulations in Scottish Gaelic rhotics, by Claire Nance, Sam Kirkham, Pages 419-460.

■ Language exposure predicts children’s phonetic patterning: Evidence from language shift, by Margaret Cychosz, Pages 461-509.

■ Ergativity and object movement across Inuit, by Michelle Yuan, Pages 510-551.

■ Are there factive predicates? An empirical investigation, by Judith Degen, Judith Tonhauser, Pages 552-591.

■ Coordination of unlike grammatical cases (and unlike categories), by Adam Przepiórkowski, Pages 592-634.

Teaching Linguistics (Online-only)

■ Infusing metacognition into advanced linguistics courses, by Rosa Vallejos-Yopán, Eva Rodríguez-González, Pages e131-e155.

Commentary (Online-only)

■ Assessing scholarship in documentary linguistics, by Andrew Garrett, Alice C. Harris, Pages e156-e172.

Book Review

■ Implicatures by Sandrine Zufferey, Jacques Moeschler, and Anne Reboul (review), by Stavros Assimakopoulos, Pages 635-638.

Issue 4

■ Infixes really are (underlyingly) prefixes/suffixes: Evidence from allomorphy on the fine timing of infixation, by Laura Kalin, Pages 641-682.

■ Stress-dependent harmony in Asturian and harmony in situ, by Joan Mascaró, Francesc Torres-Tamarit, Pages 683-715.

■ Could be stronger: Raising and resolving questions with Hindi =to, by Ashwini Deo, Pages 716-748.

■ Dynamic sociolinguistic processing: Real-time changes in judgments of speaker competence, by Erez Levon, Devyani Sharma, Yang Ye, Pages 749-774.

■ Specifying coordination in extra be sentences, by Andrew McInnerney, Pages 775-811.

■ Contrast and clausal order: On beyond Behaghel, by Laurence R. Horn, Pages 812-843.

Language and Public Policy (Online-only)

■ Segregation and desegregation of the Southern schools for the deaf: The relationship between language policy and dialect development, by Ceil Lucas, Robert Bayley, Joseph C. Hill, Carolyn McCaskill, Pages e173-e198.

Teaching Linguistics (Online-only)

■ Furthering student engagement: Lab sections in introductory linguistics, by Kaitlyn Harrigan, Anya Hogoboom, Leslie Cochrane, Pages e199-e223.

Commentary (Online-only)

■ What does the public think about language science?, by Laura Wagner, Nikole D. Patson, Sumurye Awani, Pages e224-e249.

Review

■ Minimalist parsing ed. by Robert C. Berwick and Edward P. Stabler (review), by Cristiano Chesi, Pages 852-858.

摘要

Dependency-length minimization and its limits: A possible role for a probabilistic version of the final-over-final condition

Yingqi Jing, Damián E. Blasi, Balthasar Bickel 

Abstract A prominent principle in explaining a range of word-order regularities is dependency locality, which minimizes the linear distances (dependency lengths) between a head and its dependents. However, it remains unclear to what extent language users in fact observe locality when producing sentences under diverse conditions of cross-categorical harmony (such as the placement of verbal and nominal heads on the same vs. different sides of their dependents), dependency direction (head-final vs. head-initial), and parallel vs. hierarchical dependency structures (e.g. multiple adjectives dependent on the same head vs. nested genitive dependents). Using forty-five dependency-annotated corpora of diverse languages, we find that after controlling for harmony and conditioning on dependency types, dependency-length minimization (DLM) is inversely correlated with the overall presence of head-final dependencies. This anti-DLM effect in sentences with more head-final dependencies is specifically associated with an accumulation of dependents in parallel structures and with disharmonic orders in hierarchical structures. We propose a detailed interpretation of these results and tentatively suggest a role for a probabilistic principle that favors embedding head-initial (e.g. VO) structures inside equally head-initial and thereby length-minimizing structures (e.g. relative clauses after the head noun), while head-final (OV) structures have a less pronounced preference for harmony and DLM. This is in line with earlier findings in research on the Greenbergian word-order universals and with a probabilistic version of what has been suggested more recently as the FINAL-OVER-FINAL CONDITION.

Key words dependency-length minimization, word-order harmony, head-finality, final-over-final condition, dependency treebanks

Phonetic typology and articulatory constraints: The realization of secondary articulations in Scottish Gaelic rhotics

Claire Nance, Sam Kirkham

Abstract Much progress has been made in the last 200 years with regard to understanding the origins and mechanisms of sound change. It is hypothesized that many sound changes originate in biomechanical constraints on speech production or in the misperception of sounds. These production and perception pressures explain a wide range of sound changes across the world’s languages, yet we also know that sound change is not inevitable. For example, similar phonological structures have undergone change in many languages yet remained stable in others. In this study, we examine how typologically unusual contrasts are maintained in the face of intense pressures, in order to uncover the potential biomechanical, perceptual, and sociolinguistic factors that facilitate the maintenance of typologically unusual contrasts. We focus on secondary articulation contrasts in Scottish Gaelic rhotics, triangulating auditory, acoustic, and articulatory data in order to better understand the maintenance of contrast in the face of multidimensional typological challenges. Here, individual-level articulatory strategies are combined with contextual prosodic information in order to maintain acoustic and auditory distinctiveness across three rhotic phonemes. We highlight the need to more comprehensively consider typologically unusual and minority languages in order to test the limits of generalizations about crosslinguistic phonetic typology.

Key words rhotics, palatalization, Scottish Gaelic, Celtic, sound change, ultrasound

Language exposure predicts children’s phonetic patterning: Evidence from language shift

Margaret Cychosz

Abstract understanding the role of the environment is central to language acquisition theory, rarely has this been studied for children’s phonetic development, and RECEPTIVE and EXPRESSIVE language experiences in the environment are not distinguished. This last distinction may be crucial for child speech production in particular, because production requires coordination of low-level speech-motor planning with high-level linguistic knowledge. In this study, the role of the environment is evaluated in a novel way—by studying phonetic development in a bilingual community undergoing rapid language shift. This sociolinguistic context provides a naturalistic gradient of the AMOUNT of children’s exposure to two languages and the RATIO of expressive to receptive experiences. A large-scale child language corpus encompassing over 500 hours of naturalistic South Bolivian Quechua and Spanish speech was efficiently annotated for children’s and their caregivers’ bilingual language use. These estimates were correlated with children’s patterns in a series of speech production tasks. The role of the environment varied by outcome: children’s expressive language experience best predicted their performance on a coarticulation-morphology measure, while their receptive experience predicted performance on a lower-level measure of vowel variability. Overall these bilingual exposure effects suggest a pathway for children’s role in language change whereby language shift can result in different learning outcomes within a single speech community. Appropriate ways to model language exposure in development are discussed.

Key words speech production, first language acquisition, field phonetics, morphology, language shift, Quechua, Spanish

Ergativity and object movement across Inuit

Michelle Yuan

Abstract Although the Inuit language is generally characterized as ergative, it has been observed that the ergative case patterning is relatively weaker in certain Eastern Canadian varieties, resulting in a more accusative appearance (e.g. Johns 2001, 2006, Carrier 2017). This article presents a systematic comparison of ergativity in three Inuit varieties, as a lens into the properties of case alignment and clause structure in Inuit more broadly. Building on the previous insight that ergativity in Inuit is tied to object movement to a structurally high position (Bittner 1994, Bittner & Hale 1996a,b, Woolford 2017), I demonstrate that the relative robustness of the ergative patterning across Inuit is tightly correlated with the permissibility of object movement—and not determined by the morphosyntactic properties of ERG subjects, which are uniform across Inuit. I additionally relate this correlation to another point of variation across Inuit concerning the status of object agreement as affixes vs. pronominal clitics (Yuan 2021). These connections offer testable predictions for the status of ergativity across the entire Inuit dialect continuum and yield crosslinguistic implications for the typology of case alignment, especially in how it interacts with the syntactic position of nominals.

Key words Inuit, ergativity, case, agreement, object shift, clitic doubling, syntactic variation

Are there factive predicates? An empirical investigation

Judith Degen, Judith Tonhauser

Abstract Properties of the content of the clausal complement have long been assumed to distinguish factive predicates like know from nonfactive ones like think (Kiparsky & Kiparsky 1970, inter alia). There is, however, disagreement about which properties define factive predicates, as well as uncertainty about whether the content of the complement of particular predicates exhibits the properties attributed to the content of the complement of factive predicates. This has led to a lack of consensus about which predicates are factive, a troublesome situation given the central role that factivity plays in linguistic theorizing. This article reports six experiments designed to investigate two critical properties of the content of the complement of clause-embedding predicates, namely projection and entailment, with the goal of establishing whether these properties identify a class of factive predicates. We find that factive predicates are more heterogeneous than previously assumed and that there is little empirical support from these experiments for the assumed categorical distinction between factive and nonfactive predicates. We discuss implications of our results for formal analyses of presuppositions, one area where factivity has played a central role. We propose that projection is sensitive to meaning distinctions between clause-embedding predicates that are more fine-grained than factivity.

Key words factivity, factive predicates, presupposition, projection, entailment, experiments

Coordination of unlike grammatical cases (and unlike categories)

Adam Przepiórkowski

Abstract It is often claimed that conjuncts in coordinate structures must be alike in various ways, in particular, that they should have the same syntactic category and the same grammatical case, if any. This article aims to refute such claims. On the basis of data from Polish, Estonian, and other languages, it demonstrates that there is no universal requirement that conjuncts be alike. Any appearances of such a requirement result from the fact that each conjunct must satisfy all functional constraints on the coordinate structure. The article discusses ways of formalizing such distributive satisfaction of constraints within four major linguistic frameworks: lexical-functional grammar, categorial grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, and minimalism.

Key words coordination, case, symmetry of case in conjunction, law of the coordination of likes, Polish

Infusing metacognition into advanced linguistics courses

Rosa Vallejos-Yopán, Eva Rodríguez-González

Abstract This study explores the implementation of critical thinking via metacognition in linguistics courses. It employs surveys to examine strategies used by students in two courses, Morphosyntax and Field Methods, devoted to the development of analytical skills in linguistics. We hypothesized that the application of metacognition surveys would enhance students’ awareness of techniques that promote critical thinking and active learning. Two surveys built in as core components in each course were deployed at different points during the semester. Students’ responses indicate that metacognition surveys can help students and instructors gain greater awareness of learning concerns and capabilities and identify areas for intervention.

Key words linguistics, metacognition, critical thinking, active learning, morphosyntax, fieldwork

Assessing scholarship in documentary linguistics

Andrew Garrett, Alice C. Harris

Abstract Documentary linguistics is new and distinctive enough that some linguists and other participants in academic reviews may be uncertain about how to assess its outputs. We recommend specific strategies for assessing documentary linguistic scholarship in academic review contexts, based on a brief description of the field for the benefit of colleagues in other areas.

Key words assessment, review, documentary linguistics, understudied languages

Infixes really are (underlyingly) prefixes/suffixes: Evidence from allomorphy on the fine timing of infixation

Laura Kalin

Abstract Infixation and allomorphy have long been investigated as independent phenomena—see, for example, Ultan 1975, Moravcsik 1977, and Yu 2007 on infixation, and Carstairs 1987, Paster 2006, Veselinova 2006, and Bobaljik 2012 on allomorphy. But relatively little is known about what happens when infixation and allomorphy coincide. This article presents the results of the first crosslinguistic study of allomorphy involving infixation, considering fifty-one case studies from forty-two languages (fifteen language families). Allomorphy and infixation interact systematically, with distinct sets of behaviors characterizing suppletive and nonsuppletive allomorphy involving an infix. Perhaps most notably, suppletive allomorphy is conditioned only at/from the stem edge, while nonsuppletive allomorphy is conditioned only in the surface (infixed) environment. The robustness of these and related findings supports a universal serial architecture of the morphosyntax-phonology interface where: (i) infixation is indirect, involving displacement from a stem-edge position to a stem-internal one, counter to several influential theories of infixation (see especially McCarthy & Prince 1993a and Yu 2007); (ii) suppletive exponent choice is prior to (i.e. not regulated by) the phonological grammar (in line with Paster 2006, Pak 2016, Kalin 2020, Rolle 2021, and Stanton 2023, inter alia); and (iii) realization—including exponent choice and infixation— proceeds from the bottom of the morphosyntactic structure upward (à la Bobaljik 2000, Embick 2010, Myler 2017).

Key words morphology, infixation, allomorphy, suppletion, phonology, typology

Stress-dependent harmony in Asturian and harmony in situ

Joan Mascaró, Francesc Torres-Tamarit

Abstract In many cases of stress-dependent harmony the trigger is associated with a morpheme. We examine two instances of morphemic harmony where the triggering morpheme is mixed, that is, it consists of segmental material and floating features. The floating features cause stepwise raising of the stressed vowel, /a/ → [e], and /e/ → [i], /o/ → [u]. We examine in particular Felechosa Asturian, where the triggering masculine singular count morpheme usually has the exponent /-o/ and the floating features [+high] and [−low]. When the stressed vowel is mid, /-o/ raises it to high (/neɡɾ-o/ → [ˈniɣɾ-o]). When the stressed vowel is /a/, the suffix raises this vowel to [e] as predicted, but at the same time the triggering morph /-o/ raises to [u] (/blank-o/ → [ˈbleŋk-u]). This phenomenon, which we call harmony in situ, derives from the fact that, because raising is stepwise, one of the floating features cannot link to the stressed vowel, and thus it has to be realized on the trigger itself. Felechosa Asturian is compared to Ḷḷena Asturian, which does not present harmony in situ, and an optimality-theoretic analysis is provided.

Key words Asturian, stress-dependent harmony, metaphony, floating features, harmony in situ

Could be stronger: Raising and resolving questions with Hindi =to

Ashwini Deo

Abstract Hindi and several other Indo-Aryan languages contain a discourse marker that has been described as having a wide range of functions, including topic marking, intensive, emphatic, contrastive, and assertive. In Hindi, this function is realized by the enclitic =to. Possible translational equivalents for =to include expressions like in fact, sure, you know, well, as for, at least, finally, and but. This article investigates the diverse uses of =to and argues that the full range can be uniformly accounted for only if =to is taken to be a particle that signals that the question resolved by its prejacent is weak. The analysis treats =to as a generalized downtoner that comments on the strength of the question the prejacent addresses, relative to the speaker’s information state, prior discourse moves, and assumptions about the common ground.

Key words discourse particles, formal pragmatics, current question, Indo-Aryan

Dynamic sociolinguistic processing: Real-time changes in judgments of speaker competence

Erez Levon, Devyani Sharma, Yang Ye

Abstract Social category information plays a central role in speech perception and processing. To date, research on this topic has struggled to model how social category perceptions evolve over the time course of an interaction. In this article, we build on recent methodological developments to investigate trajectories of listener perceptions, focusing on how impressions change as linguistic, social, and contextual details emerge. We base our arguments on an analysis of listeners’ real-time evaluations of the perceived competence of speakers of two British regional accents during a mock interview for a job in a law firm. Results indicate a need to move away from the view, predominant in sociolinguistics, of category perception as a discrete phenomenon and toward a model of perception as inference under uncertainty. We discuss implications for theories of sociolinguistic cognition and for understandings of accent bias.

Key words sociolinguistic perception, real-time methods, attitudes, accent bias, dynamic construal

Specifying coordination in extra be sentences

Andrew McInnerney

Abstract I argue that the phenomenon of ‘extra be’ (e.g. That’s the thing, is we lost) can be analyzed in terms of specifying coordination. Specifically, ‘extra be’ derives from a ‘colon phrase’ (:P) structure, where Spec-:P is a host sentence and Comp-:P is a pseudocleft adding information to the host. ‘Extra be’ arises when the head T of the pseudocleft raises to :0, an operation that is possible only under specific circumstances involving ellipsis in the pseudocleft. I motivate this analysis by first considering a set of syntactic, prosodic, and semantic properties exhibited by extra be sentences, including properties of ‘extra be’ itself, properties of the post-copular specificational phrase, and locality conditions in the construction. I then develop the analysis described above, emphasizing in particular the assignment of a uniform structure to both extra be sentences and their ‘extra be’-less counterparts (compare: That’s the thing {: / is} we lost). Finally, I compare key features of the new analysis with those of previous proposals.

Key words specifying coordination, extra be sentences, pseudoclefts, ellipsis, head movement, EPP

Contrast and clausal order: On beyond Behaghel

Laurence R. Horn

Abstract Since Aristotle first set out rules of natural priority, rhetoricians and linguists have sought to establish the ‘natural order’ of words, phrases, and clauses. Accounts of constituent order by classical rhetoricians and philologists and by modern linguists and psychologists have addressed word order within phrases and phrasal order within clauses. However, they have not tended to investigate clausal order within sentences, with the important but limited exception of NARRATION sequences (They had a baby and they got married), which—as recognized from Dionysius (‘What is prior in time should also be prior in word order’) to Grice (‘Be orderly’)—exhibit a robust but defeasible iconic link between order of events and order of mention. For clauses exhibiting the rhetorical relation of CONTRAST rather than narration, the literature is less perspicuous. It is on such cases that I focus here, inspired by BEHAGHEL’S SECOND LAW (1932:4): ‘That which is less important (or already known to the listener) is placed before that which is more important (or unknown) … Old concepts are placed before new’.

Key words Behaghel’s second law, but clauses, constituent order, cloned existential conjunction, contrast, highlighting, repetitions, sandwich sequences, tautologies

Segregation and desegregation of the Southern schools for the deaf: The relationship between language policy and dialect development

eil Lucas, Robert Bayley, Joseph C. Hill, Carolyn McCaskill

Abstract Recent research has shown that a distinct variety of American Sign Language, known as Black ASL, developed in the segregated schools for deaf African Americans in the US South during the pre-civil rights era. Research has also shown that in some respects Black ASL is closer than most white varieties to the standard taught in ASL classes and found in ASL dictionaries. This article explores the circumstances that resulted in the creation of a distinct ASL variety, with attention to the role of language in education policy in both the white and Black Southern schools for the deaf. Archival research shows that while white deaf students were long subjected to oral instruction and forbidden to sign in class, Black students, although their severely underfunded schools provided only basic vocational education, continued to receive their education in ASL, with classes often taught by deaf teachers. The differences in language education policy explain the difficulties Black students experienced in understanding their teachers and white classmates after integration occurred, despite great resistance, in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as the fact that Black signers from the South, particularly older Black signers, are more likely than their white counterparts to use traditional features.

Key words Black ASL, desegregation, dialect development, language in education policy, oralism, segregation

Furthering student engagement: Lab sections in introductory linguistics

Kaitlyn Harrigan, Anya Hogoboom, Leslie Cochrane

Abstract This article describes a pedagogical innovation implemented in our introductory linguistics course. We supplement classic theory building with a series of labs, deployed through a co-requisite ‘lab’ course that meets weekly. This builds on two previously established teaching strategies: the implementation of hands-on activities in linguistics classrooms, and the lab sections traditionally utilized in the natural sciences. The labs aim to fulfill three goals: (i) to better represent the field of linguistics in our introductory course, (ii) to help students solidify theories and connect them to the real world, and (iii) to teach practical skills for linguistics research and more broadly.

Key words pedagogy, teaching, lab course, problem-based learning (PBL), process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL), introduction to linguistics

What does the public think about language science?

Laura Wagner, Nikole D. Patson, Sumurye Awani

Abstract Despite the long tradition of using the scientific method to study language, there is a widespread, if largely anecdotally based, feeling among language scientists that the general public does not perceive language to be a classic object of scientific study. The goal of the current study was to investigate this notion. We report the results of three experiments conducted in informal science learning environments that: (i) confirm the public thinks of science and language as fundamentally different objects, and (ii) show there are some areas of language science that are more readily accepted as science than others. Our results also suggest that high-impact demonstrations of core linguistic phenomena may be used to encourage people to recognize that language can be, and often is, an object of scientific study. Although the public has an incomplete understanding of the study of language, we argue that the strong humanistic approach with which the public associates the study of language can be seen as an opportunity to broaden participation in science

Key words informal science, language science, public perception

期刊简介

Language, a journal of the Linguistic Society of America, is published quarterly and contains articles, short reports, and book reviews on all aspects of linguistics, focusing on the area of theoretical linguistics. Since 2013, Language features online content in addition to the print edition, including supplemental materials and articles presented in various sections: Teaching Linguistics; Language and Public Policy; Commentaries; Research Reports; and Perspectives. Language has been the primary literary vehicle for the Society since 1924.

Language是美国语言学会的期刊，每季度出版一次，收录语言学各个方面的文章、简短报告和书评，重点关注理论语言学领域。自2013年以来，《语言》除了印刷版外，还提供在线内容，包括补充材料和文章，在不同的部分呈现：教学语言学、语言与公共政策、评论、研究报告和展望。自1924年以来，《语言》一直是学会的主要文字载体。

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