Journal of Psycholinguistic Research

Volume 52, Issue1-3, 2023

Journal of Psycholinguistic Research（SSCI二区，2022 IF：2，排名：54/194）2023年第1-3期共发研究性论文45篇。研究论文涉及颜色分类及其对感知的影响、非言语行为和口头纠正反馈、使用功能性近红外光谱（fNIRS）和眼动追踪技术的研究二语习得等等。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《心理语言学研究》2022年第1-6期

目录

ARTICLES

■Colour Categorization and its Effect on Perception: A Conceptual Replication, by Lenka Štěpánková & Tomáš Urbánek, Pages 1–413.

■The Case for Smiling? Nonverbal Behavior and Oral Corrective Feedback,  by Hilal Ergül, Pages 17-32.

■The Role of the Valence, Arousing Properties and Subjective Significance of Subliminally Presented Words in Affective Priming, by Kamil Imbir， Maciej Pastwa and Magdalena Walkowiak, Pages 33–56.

■Syntactic and Semantic Processing in Japanese Sentence Reading: A Research Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), by Licui Zhao, Haruyuki Kojima, Daichi Yasunaga & Koji Irie , Pages 57–73.

■An Eye-Tracking Study of Structural Priming from Abstract Arithmetic to Chinese Structure NP1 + You + NP2 + Hen + AP, by Tao ZengWen MaoYarong Gao, Pages 75–100.

■Lexico-semantic Activation of Translation Equivalents During the Attentional Blink, by Hong-Wen Cao PhD, Er-Hu Zhang, Xiaoting Xiang, Defeng Li & Victoria Lai Cheng Lei , Pages 101–113.

■Variability in Article Use Among Chinese EFL Learners: Effects of Semantic Contexts, Proficiency and Discourse-Mode, by Leyi Qian, Kangxi Li & Yan Cheng , Pages 115-151.

■Pupil Dilation Response to Prosody and Syntax During Auditory Sentence Processing, by Özgür Aydınİpek & Pınar Uzun, Pages 153–177.

■Expressions with Aspectual Verbs Elicit Slower Reading Times than Those with Psychological Verbs: An Eye-Tracking Study in Mandarin Chinese, by Ye Ma, Brian Buccola, Zinan Wang, Shannon Cousins, Aline Godfroid & Alan Beretta, Pages 179–215. 

■The Influence of Cognitive, Affective, and Sociocultural Individual Differences on L2 Chinese Speech Performance: A Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes Approach, by Peijian Paul Sun, Pages 217–239. 

■Relations of Vocabulary and Cognitive Skills With Reading Performance of North Korean Students in South Korean Schools, by Jeongsuk JangRauno Parrila & Tomohiro Inoue, Pages 241–259.  

■Cognitive control in processing ambiguous idioms: evidence from a self-paced reading study, by Tamar Arnon & Michal Lavidor, Pages 261–281. 

■The Effects of Over- and Under-Specified Linguistic Input on L2 Online Processing of Referring Expressions, by Shiyu Wu, Dilin Liu & Shaoqiang Huang, Pages 283-305.

■Predictors of Word and Pseudoword Reading in Languages with Different Orthographic Consistency, by Maria-José González-ValenzuelaDolores López-MontielIsaías Martin-Ruiz, Pages 307-330.

■Morphological Complexity in Arabic Spelling and Its Implication for Cognitive Processing, by Iyad Issa,  Pages 331-357.

■L1 Grammatical Gender Variation through the Representation in the Lexicon, by Rachel Klassen, Björn Lundquist & Marit Westergaard, Pages 359 - 380.

■Observations on the Progression of Gestures with L2 Proficiency: A Call for Further Research, by Renia Lopez-Ozieblo, Pages 381 - 404.

■Subject Advantage in L1-English Learners’ Production of Chinese Relative Clauses, by Nozomi Tanaka & Alessia Cherici, Pages 405 - 424.

■The Effect of Joint Production on the Accuracy and Complexity of Second Language Writing, by Zilin Sang & Weicheng Zou, Pages 425- 443.

■The Contribution of Radical Knowledge and Character Recognition to L2 Chinese Reading Comprehension, by Jing Zhou, Pages 445 - 475.

■EFL Listening, Metacognitive Awareness, and Motivation: The Magic of L1-Mediated Metacognitive Intervention, by Ghazaleh-Sadat Razavi, Ebrahim Fakhri Alamdari & Mehrshad Ahmadian, Pages 477 - 495.

■Production of Sentential Negation in German and Italian Non-fluent Aphasia, by Valantis Fyndanis, Gabriele Miceli, Rita Capasso, Helene Killmer, Sonia Malefaki & Kleanthes K. Grohmann, Pages 497 - 524.

■Emotive Tonality of the "Youth–Old Age" Dichotomy in Russian and Chinese Media Discourses: The Stage of Psychosemantic Expertise, by Meng Qin, Dongxia Xiao, Lin Yuan & Irina Karabulatova, Pages 525–553.

■How Can Orthographic Representations in Arabic Contribute to Phoneme Awareness Development? by Haitham Taha, Pages 555 - 567.

■New Directions in L2 Self-efficacy Research: Comparing Bifactor and Second-Order Models in the English Public Speaking Domain, by Xue ZhangBruce W. AustinYuliya Ardasheva ,Pages  569 - 587.

■Do Men Apply Differently Than Women? An Analysis of Language in Standardized Application Documents, by  Pia Magdalena BrandtPhilipp Yorck Herzberg, Pages 589 - 605.

■Using Data Mining, Text Mining, and Bibliometric Techniques to the Research Trends and Gaps in the Field of Language and Linguistics, by Mehrdad CheshmehSohrabiAmir Mashhadi, Pages 607 - 630.

■Disambiguating Effects of Syllable Position and Neighborhood Size: Contributions of Hanja During Sino-Korean Processing, by Yoolim KimSandra KotzorAditi Lahiri, Pages 631 - 651.

■ The Importance of Morphological Knowledge in the Reading Comprehension Difficulties in a Highly Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Poor Comprehenders, by Tevhide Kargin, Birkan Guldenoglu, Hilal Gengec & Merih Toker, Pages 653–673.

■Investigation of the Relationship Between Animacy and L2 Learners’ Acquisition of the English Plural Morpheme, by Yu Tamura, Pages 675 - 690.

■ What Memory-Load Interference Tasks Tell Us about Spoken Relative Clause Processing, by Tuyuan Cheng, Pages 691 - 720.

■Linguistic Variation in Iranian University Student Graffiti: Examining the Role of Gender, by Mostafa Morady Moghaddam & Neil Murray, Pages 721 - 742.

■Can Translation Equivalents in L1 Activated by L2 Produce Homophonic Interference: An Eye Movement Study of Cross-Language Lexical Activation in Chinese English Learners, by Jiaxin Ren, Chuanwei Luo, Yixin Yang & Min Ji, Pages 743–761.  

■Choice of Mandarin Spatial Demonstratives in Distant Interaction, by Ming Yue,Boyang Sun, Pages  763 - 785. 

■Investigating the Relationship Between Linguistic Competence, Ideal Self, Learning Engagement, and Integrated Writing Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach, by  Xinhua Zhu, Yuan Yao, Wanru Pang & Siyu Zhu, Pages 787–808. 

■Attitudes Toward Saudi English: Decentering the Inner-Circle, by Raed A. Alzahrani, Pages 809 - 829. 

■Scaffolding via Group-dynamic Assessment to Positively Affect Motivation, Learning Anxiety, and Willingness to Communicate: A Case Study of High School Students, by  Zeinab AziziAyman Farid Khafaga, Pages  831 - 851. 

■Is Purple Lost in Translation? The Affective Meaning of Purple, Violet, and Lilac Cognates in 16 Languages and 30 Populations, by Mari Uusküla, Christine Mohr, Déborah Epicoco & Domicele Jonauskaite, Pages 853–868. 

■How do Chinese-English Bilinguals and Tibetan-Chinese-English Trilinguals Differ in Explicit and Implicit Aptitude? by Ci Jiang, Fang Liu, Yifei Gong, Yi Cao & Jianlin Chen, Pages 869–885. 

■Power and Gender in Saudi Hijazi Proverbs: An Ideological-Cultural Study, by Meead Ghafoori & Tariq Elyas, Pages 887 - 904. 

■More Stable Memory Retention of Novel Words Learned from Fast Mapping than from Explicit Encoding, by Shuang Chen, Yuejuan & WangWeiwei Yan, Pages 905 - 922. 

■Why do He and She Disagree: The Role of Binary Morphological Features in Grammatical Gender Agreement in German, by Margret SeybothFrank Domahs, Pages 923 - 955.  

■Can Language Influence Health Decisions? The Role of Foreign Language and Grammatical Structure, by Reem Alkhammash, Yousif A. Asiri, Ibrahim R. Alqarni & Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Pages 957–974.  

■Women Versus Females: Gender Essentialism in Everyday Language, by Solangel C. TroncosoZach C. SchudsonSusan A. Gelman, Pages 975 - 995. 

■Prosody Trumps Orthography in Second Language Phonology: The Case of Consonant Gemination, by Mohammed Nour Abu Guba, Pages 997 - 1015. 

摘要

Colour Categorization and its Effect on Perception: A Conceptual Replication

Lenka Štěpánková, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University；The Institute for Research On Children, Youth and Family, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University

Tomáš Urbánek, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno; Institute of Psychology, The Czech Academy of Sciences

Abstract  The presented study examines the question of colour categorization in relation to the hypothesis of linguistic relativity. The study is based on research conducted by Gilbert et al. (2006) and their claim that linguistic colour categorization in a particular language helps colour recognition and speeds the process of colour discrimination for colours from different linguistic categories but only for the right visual field. Our study approached the research question differently. We used the same methodology as Gilbert’s team et al. (2006), but we used different colour categories in the Czech language and significantly enlarged the number of participants to 106 undergraduate psychology students. Our results show that the fastest reaction times were in trials when the target was located in the left visual field, quite opposite from the Gilbert’s et al. (2006) study. We argue that this finding is based on different processes than simple colour linguistic categorisation and attentional processes actually play an important role in the task.

 Key words  Language, Colour categorization, The hypothesis of linguistic relativity

The Case for Smiling? Nonverbal Behavior and Oral Corrective Feedback

Hilal Ergül，Department of Languages and Literatures, University of Northern Iowa

Abstract  Oral Corrective Feedback is a widely used teaching strategy that has been found to help language acquisition. The factors that contribute to its effectiveness, however, remain elusive. In this study, the role of smiling during teachers’ OCF provision is investigated in intact language classrooms by modifying the analytical framework developed by Lyster and Ranta (Stud Second Lang Acquis, 19(1):37–66, 1997), which determines OCF effectiveness by the success of the learner uptake. In addition to the feedback strategies used, this study examines teacher smiling during the feedback instances, and whether they were genuine or polite smiles. The Facial Action Coding System (Ekman & Friesen, Environ Psych Nonver, 1(1), 56–75, 1976; Ekman, Friesen, & Hager, Facial Action Coding System: The Manual on CD ROM. Salt Lake City, UT: Research Nexus division of Network Information Research Corporation, 2002) is utilized to operationalize smile genuineness. Significant findings indicate that when teacher smiling is genuine, learners are more likely to correct their errors, while polite smiles do not have the same effect.

key words  Second language acquisition, Oral corrective feedback, EFL, Negotiation of form, Negotiation of meaning, Nonverbal behaviour, Smiling

The Role of the Valence, Arousing Properties and Subjective Significance of Subliminally Presented Words in Affective Priming

Kamil Imbir, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw

Maciej Pastwa, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw

Magdalena Walkowiak, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw

Abstract  In the verbal affective priming paradigm, the properties of a subliminally presented stimulus alter the interpretation of neutral target stimulus. In the experiment reported here, we tested the role of four factors (valence, origin, arousing properties and subjective significance) that determine the emotional reactions to words in affective priming. Subliminal masked presentation of words preceded the explicit task, which was assessment of neutral Quick Response code (QR code) stimuli. The QRs were codes for words representing personality traits. The results showed the effect of assimilation (negative words caused a negative interpretation, positive caused a positive interpretation) for words’ emotional valence and no effects for origin. Concerning arousal, we found a weak negative trend. In the case of subjective significance, a moderate positive trend was found. These results suggest that affective priming effects are susceptible not only to the valence of priming stimuli but also to activation factors.

Key words Affect misattribution,  Valence,  Arousal, Subjective signifcance, Subliminally presented words

Syntactic and Semantic Processing in Japanese Sentence Reading: A Research Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Licui Zhao, School of Foreign Languages, Yangzhou University; Graduate School of Human and Socio-Environmental Studies, Kanazawa University

Haruyuki Kojima, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Human Science, Kanazawa University

Daichi Yasunaga, Department of Linguistics and Literature, Faculty of Letters, Kanazawa University

Koji Irie, Department of Linguistics and Literature, Faculty of Letters, Kanazawa University

Abstract  In order to examine whether syntactic processing is a necessary prerequisite for semantic integration in Japanese, cortical activation was monitored while participants engaged in silent reading task. Congruous sentences (CON), semantic violation sentences (V-SEM), and syntactic violation sentences (V-SYN) were presented in the experiment. The participants’ oxygenated hemoglobin concentration changes during the reading task were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The results suggest that the CON sentences did not require additional cognitive load on syntactic processing or semantic processing. The V-SEM sentences demanded great cognitive load on semantic processing. Besides, it also elicited great cognitive load on syntactic processing. The V-SYN sentences induced great cognitive load on syntactic processing, but it did not induce additional load on semantic processing. These evidence demonstrates that, in Japanese language processing, the difficultness of semantic processing could influence the difficultness of syntactic processing, while the difficultness of syntactic processing would not influence the difficultness of semantic processing. Our findings are suggestive of the possibility that in Japanese language reading, semantic processing precedes syntactic processing, or semantic processing and syntactic processing are in parallel.

key words  Syntactic processing, Semantic processing, Japanese, Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

An Eye-Tracking Study of Structural Priming from Abstract Arithmetic to Chinese Structure NP1 + You + NP2 + Hen + AP

Tao Zeng, College of Foreign Languages, Hunan University; Hunan Provincial Research Center for Language and Cognition

Wen Mao, School of Foreign Studies, Nantong University

Yarong Gao, College of Foreign Languages, Hunan University

Abstract  The present study attempted to explore the abstract priming effects from mathematical equations to Mandarin Chinese structure NP1 + You + NP2 + Hen + AP in an on-line comprehension task with the aim to figure out the mechanism that underlying these effects. The results revealed that compared with baseline priming conditions, participants tended to choose more high-attachment options in high-attachment priming conditions and more low-attachment priming options in low-attachment priming conditions. Such difference had reached a significant level, which provided evidence for the shared structural representation across mathematical and linguistic domains. Additionally, the fixations sequences during arithmetic calculations reflected those equations were processed hierarchically and could be extracted in parallel instead of being scanned in a sequentially left-to-right order. Our results have provided some evidence for the Representational Account.

Key words  Abstract arithmetic equations, Structural priming, Eye-movement

Lexico-semantic Activation of Translation Equivalents During the Attentional Blink

Hong-Wen Cao PhD, Research Center for Language, Cognition and Language Application, Chongqing University; Centre for Studies of Translation, Interpreting and Cognition, University of Macau

Er-Hu Zhang, Research Center for Language, Cognition and Language Application, Chongqing University

Xiaoting Xiang, School of Foreign Language and Literature, Chongqing University of Education

Defeng Li, Centre for Studies of Translation, Interpreting and Cognition, University of Macau

Victoria Lai Cheng Lei, Centre for Studies of Translation, Interpreting and Cognition, University of Macau

Abstract  The attentional blink (AB) refers to the impaired identification of the second target (T2) when presented within approximately 500ms after the first target (T1). Although the AB is eliminated when two targets can be integrated into a single compound word, it remains unclear whether the lexico-semantic organization of translation equivalents modulates the magnitude of the AB. In the present study, we examined consecutive targets’ processing in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm using Chinese-English translation equivalents and non-translation equivalents. The results demonstrated that an overall presence of the AB effect was observed when T1 and T2 were non-translation equivalents. However, the AB effect disappeared completely when the two target words were translation equivalents. Taken together, these findings suggest that Chinese-English bilinguals are translating intentionally between Mandarin and English, which facilitates lexical access to word meaning from the two languages at the initial stages of visual word processing. Furthermore, such lexico-semantic activation of translation equivalents attributes to the elimination of the AB.

Key words Attentional blink, Translation equivalents, Lexico-semantic activation, Chinese-english bilinguals

Variability in Article Use Among Chinese EFL Learners: Effects of Semantic Contexts, Proficiency and Discourse-Mode

Leyi Qian, School of Foreign Studies, Hefei University of Technology

Kangxi Li, School of Foreign Studies, Hefei University of Technology

Yan Cheng, School of Foreign Studies, Hefei University of Technology

AbstractThe aim of this study is to shed light on the learnability regarding usages of three English articles (a, the and zero) among Chinese EFL learners. To this end, three tasks were administered in a pool of 107 participants to examine the extent to which learners can accurately use articles across different semantic contexts as well as the effects of varying proficiency level and discourse mode on learners’ article decisions. The results showed that both groups (Group Low and Medium) in this study were likely to commit few errors with respect to article usages that target definiteness and specificity than those in zero-licensing contexts. In addition, inconsistent findings were observed regarding the effect of proficiency level on the variability in learners’ article choices. Though significant differences were observed between two discourse modes (exposition and argumentation), it is claimed that NP-licensing contexts rather than shift of discourse mode play a major role in explaining the variances in the accurate use of articles. Furthermore, the findings in the present study will also inspire pedagogical implications.

Key words Article, Chinese, Definiteness, Specificity, Zero article

Pupil Dilation Response to Prosody and Syntax During Auditory Sentence Processing

Özgür Aydın, Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Languages and History-Geography, Ankara University; Neuroscience and Neurotechnology Center of Excellence, Ankara University; Department of Interdisciplinary Neuroscience, Faculty of Health Sciences

İpek Pınar Uzun, Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Languages and History-Geography, Ankara University; Neuroscience and Neurotechnology Center of Excellence, Ankara University

AbstractPupil dilation response has been shown to reflect different levels of sentence processing during prosodic and syntactic processing in language comprehension. Our pupillometry experiment aimed to investigate whether pupil diameter was sensitive to the auditory sentence processing involved in comprehending congruent and incongruent statements. Twenty-one participants were presented with 300 auditory stimuli consisting of syntactically and/or prosodically congruent and incongruent sentences in Turkish. The pupillary response results were significant only for syntactically incongruent sentences and for sentences that were both syntactically and prosodically incongruent. This indicates that prosody had no significant effect on its own. Based on the hypothesis that prosodic and syntactic processing require cognitive sensitivity for auditory sentence comprehension, we expected an increase in pupil diameter for both processes. However, our findings are consistent with the previous assumptions that pupil size increases during syntactic manipulation, but our findings showed that prosodic processing does not increase pupil size, contrary to previous studies.

Key words Prosody, Syntax, Pupillometry, Auditory stimuli, Focus, Post-verbal position

Expressions with Aspectual Verbs Elicit Slower Reading Times than Those with Psychological Verbs: An Eye-Tracking Study in Mandarin Chinese

Ye Ma, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University

Brian Buccola, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University

Brian Buccola, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University

Zinan Wang, Department of Entomology, Michigan State University; Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior Program, Michigan State University

Shannon Cousins, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University

Aline Godfroid, Second Language Studies and TESOL Program, Michigan State University

Alan Beretta, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University

Abstract  Research over the last 20 years has investigated the processing costs for sentences such as John began the book. Much of this work has conflated sentences with aspectual verbs, like start or finish, with psychological verbs, like enjoy or tolerate. However, recent studies have reported greater costs for aspectual verbs compared to psychological verbs (e.g., Katsika et al. in Ment Lex 7:58–76, 2012; Lai et al. in Compositionality and concepts in linguistics and psychology, 2017). The present paper reports an eye-tracking study that examined the costs of processing both verb types in Mandarin Chinese. The results revealed greater costs both for aspectual verbs compared to controls (John read the book) and for aspectual verbs compared to psychological verbs, reinforcing the claims of the Structured Individual Hypothesis (Piñango and Deo in J Semant 33:359–408, 2016). Strikingly, there was an early effect at the verb for aspectual verbs but not for psychological verbs. We argue that this result, together with previous findings and other conceptual issues, necessitates a conservative modification of the SIH: aspectual verbs are semantically more complex than psychological verbs. This modification retains the core analysis underlying the SIH, but reconciles the SIH with experimental findings by bringing it in line with the view that lexical semantic complexity has immediate consequences in processing (e.g., Brennan and Pylkkänen in Lang Cogn Process 25:777–807, 2010).

Key words Semantic complexity, Aspectual verb, Psychological verb, Eye-tracking, Mandarin Chinese

The Influence of Cognitive, Affective, and Sociocultural Individual Differences on L2 Chinese Speech Performance: A Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes Approach

Peijian Paul Sun, Department of Linguistics, Zhejiang University

Abstract Informed by Segalowitz’s (Cognitive bases of second language fluency, Routledge, 2010) L2 speech production model and MacIntyre et al.’s (Mod Lang J 82(4):545–562, 1998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x) L2 willingness to communicate model, this study sought to understand the influence of cognitive, affective and sociocultural individual differences on advanced learners’ L2 Chinese speech performance. A total of 240 advanced L2 Chinese learners in China participated in the study. The participants’ perceptions of the impact of cognitive, affective, and sociocultural factors on their L2 Chinese speech performance were measured by an adapted questionnaire. A speaking test, following the Hanyu Shuiping Kouyu Kaoshi (HSKK, an international standardized L2 Chinese speaking proficiency test for non-native speakers), was employed to evaluate the participants’ L2 Chinese speech performance. The results of multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) analysis show that (1) cognitive factors such as cognitive fluency, expression practice strategy, and assistance strategy, (2) affective factors such as speaking self-efficacy, speaking anxiety, and speaking motivation, and (3) sociocultural factors such as attitudes toward target language class and attitudes toward target language culture jointly influence advanced L2 Chinese learners’ speech performance. Results and implications of the present study are discussed for enhancing learners’ L2 Chinese speech performance.

Key words Advanced L2 Chinese learners, Individual differences, L2 Chinese speech performance, MIMIC analysis

Relations of Vocabulary and Cognitive Skills With Reading Performance of North Korean Students in South Korean Schools

Abstract We examined if North (n = 123) and South Korean (n = 123) children in Grades 3 to 8 studying in South Korea differ in their reading, vocabulary, and literacy-related cognitive skills, and whether language and literacy-related skills contribute to reading outcomes differently among North and South Korean children. The results showed that South Korean students performed better in syllable deletion, RAN-Letters, vocabulary, decoding fluency, and reading comprehension after controlling for age and SES. No differences were observed in phonological awareness, RAN-Digits, and visual processing tasks. A multigroup path analysis showed that phonological awareness and vocabulary were more strongly associated with decoding fluency for the South than the North Korean students, whereas the opposite was true for visual processing. The results suggest that South Korean vocabulary knowledge may be a significant factor in addressing the academic difficulties facing North Korean children in South Korean schools and that it is important to consider linguistic characteristics when examining the variations in reading skills and vocabulary knowledge of North Korean students in South Korean schools. These findings have implications for North Korean children’s literacy instruction in South Korean schools.

Key words North Korean children, Reading outcomes, Cognitive skills, Linguistic differences

Cognitive control in processing ambiguous idioms: evidence from a self-paced reading study

Tamar Arnon, Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University; The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Centerr, Bar-Ilan University

Michal Lavidor, Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University; The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Centerr, Bar-Ilan University

Abstract  Idioms entail a competition between bottom-up and top-down activations of literal and figurative meanings. The present study explored the involvement of cognitive control in processing Hebrew ambiguous idioms. Fifty subjects have completed a self-paced reading task and a response inhibition, stop-signal task (SST). Subjects read 26 matched pairs of almost-identical sentences, which included ambiguous idioms (e.g., “break the ice”). The ambiguity was resolved only in the third part of the sentence, which was either literal (“on the parking lot”) or figurative (“with funny stories”). Figurative disambiguation parts were read significantly faster than literal ones. The means of the absolute RT difference between the literal and figurative sentences significantly correlated with the SST cognitive control measure. A comparison between three groups of cognitive control levels validated that “Good inhibitors” in the SST were also faster in processing ambiguities. The paper discusses the generality of cognitive control in linguistic processing.

Key words Idioms, Ambiguity, Cognitive control, Inhibition, Self-Paced Reading

The Effects of Over- and Under-Specified Linguistic Input on L2 Online Processing of Referring Expressions

Shiyu Wu, School of Foreign Languages, Shanghai Jiao Tong University

Dilin Liu, Department of English, University of Alabama

Shaoqiang Huang, School of Foreign Languages, Shanghai Jiao Tong University

Abstract  Via two reading experiments, this exploratory study examined the effects of over-and under-specified linguistic input on L2 online processing of Chinese referring expressions (REs). In each experiment, a group of advanced L2 Chinese speakers (all with Uyghurs as L1) and a control group of native Chinese speakers read 48 sets of 4 sentence pairs with each set including one sentence pair containing referential underspecification (ambiguity) and one pair containing overspecification (redundancy). An analysis of the two groups’ reaction time (RT) using mixed-effects linear modelling reveals that underspecification had no effect on native Chinese speakers in both experiments, and overspecification also had no effect in the form of a redundant size noun modifier in Experiment 1 but showed a facilitating effect in the form of a color noun modifier in Experiment 2. In contrast, L2 Chinese speakers were significantly disrupted by underspecification in both experiments but not by overspecification. The results seem to support the hypothesis that L2 processing is constraint-based. Tentative research and pedagogical implications of the findings are discussed.

Key words L2 processing, Reaction time, Referring expression, Over/underspecification

Predictors of Word and Pseudoword Reading in Languages with Different Orthographic Consistency

Maria-José González-Valenzuela, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Univerisity of Málaga

Dolores López-Montiel, Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Univerisity of Málaga

Fatma Chebaani, Educational Sciences Department, The Higher Normal School of Kouba

Marta Cobos-Cali, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Educational Sciences, University of Azuay

Elisa Piedra-Martínez, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Educational Sciences, University of Azuay

Isaías Martin-Ruiz, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Univerisity of Málaga

Abstract  This study analyzes the impact of certain cognitive processes on word and pseudoword reading in languages with different orthographic consistency (Spanish and Arabic) in the first year of Primary Education. The study was conducted with a group of 113 pupils from Algeria and another group of 128 pupils from Ecuador, from a middle-class background and without any special education needs. The participants were assessed in terms of their reading ability of words and pseudowords, knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory. Using a correlational design, descriptive-exploratory, bivariate, and hierarchical multivariate regressions were applied to the different measures of reading in each language. The findings show that knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory contribute differently to the explanation of reading ability in each group at the start of compulsory schooling. These results have important implications for the teaching of reading skills and the prevention of specific learning disabilities, as well as the theory of reading acquisition.

Key words Cognitive predictors, Reading, Spanish, Arabic, Orthographic consistency

Morphological Complexity in Arabic Spelling and Its Implication for Cognitive Processing

Iyad Issa, Community Development Authority

Abstract  Spelling poses a challenge to Arabic-speaking learners due to the complexity of the morphological and orthographic systems in Arabic. Arabic morphology has been argued to play a critical role in spelling since its morphological operations are built on a system consisting of a root that is interlocking into different patterns of vowels to form different categories of words. This study made a detailed classification of spelling errors in a word dictation task, based on morphological structures, undertaken by 107 Typically-developing learners (TD) and learners with learning disabilities (LD) attending the same schools in Jordan. All participants ranged in age from 7 years, 3 months to 15 years, 2 months (grades 2 to 8). The spelling task was made up of 400 common words representing most morphological forms in different conjugations and grammatical classes. The results indicated that TD and LD learners follow a similar pattern of complexity even though the LD group produced more errors than the TD group. Both groups encountered more difficulties in passive voice forms followed by active voice forms. Furthermore, both groups spelled nouns, verbal nouns and derivations more accurately than verbal forms (active and passive voice). The results provide additional evidence for the nonlinear growth of morphological knowledge in spelling. In addition, spelling errors suggested that the spelling process goes in a hierarchical way where words can be accessed and processed either according to the root or according to the stem. Therefore, roots or stems are firstly accessed and attached to basic word patterns (the grapheme without diacritics and affixes). Thereafter, prefixes and, then, suffixes are attached to the word pattern and, finally, diacritics are accessed and attached to the word pattern.

Key words Arabic, Spelling errors, Morphological complexity, Learning disabilities, Morphographs, Morphological processing, Semitic languages, Root, Word pattern, Dual-route hypothesis, The morpheme-based theory, The stem/ word-based theory

L1 Grammatical Gender Variation through the Representation in the Lexicon

Rachel Klassen, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway

Björn Lundquist, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway

Marit Westergaard, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway; Department of Language and Literature, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)

Abstract  In most studies on gender processing, native speakers of the same language are treated as a homogeneous group. The current study investigates to what extent an ongoing change in the gender system of Norwegian (a development from three to two genders, involving the loss of feminine) may be reflected in processing. We carried out a gender decision task in which speakers were presented with 32 nouns of each gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and asked to select the corresponding indefinite article. Based on these results, we identified three different groups: three-gender speakers, two-gender speakers, and an unstable gender use group that used feminine gender to varying degrees. This division corresponded with clear differences in RTs, the two-gender speakers being faster overall with no difference across conditions, the three-gender group being slower with masculine, and the unstable group being slower with both masculine and feminine. Thus, our results indicate that native speakers of the same language can in fact have different underlying representations of gender in the lexicon.

key words  Grammatical gender, L1 variation, Lexical access, Gender representation, Norwegian

Observations on the Progression of Gestures with L2 Proficiency: A Call for Further Research

Abstract  Gestures in learners of second languages (L2) are still an understudied field. Most studies comparing the same individuals gesturing in their L2 and in the mother tongue (L1) report a higher frequency of gestures in the L2, however, the reason for this difference is not yet clear. Aside from idiosyncratic and cultural variations, differences in language type, such as syllabic duration and functional load and syntactical structure, as well as differences in the proficiency of the speaker are likely to affect the production of gestures in terms of their frequency and function. The many variables to be considered obscure the role of proficiency and the integration of gesture-speech-idea in L2 speakers. These variables are only controlled in a handful of longitudinal studies comparing speakers’ gestures at two or more points in the proficiency continuum. With this paper, we seek to add our observations to this corpus, using the data collected under the case study of a Cantonese learner of English, to reflect on a number of existing theoretical constructs. We propose a number of ideas that need further research, as well as a number of variables that need to be better understood in order to advance L2 gesture research. As our observations are based on the narrations of one individual, our generalizations are theoretical at this point as our results cannot to be extrapolated to all L2 learners, instead, they are intended to highlight a number of areas related to L2 gesture production and how this might change with proficiency, that require further study.

Key words Gesture, Second language acquisition, Proficiency, Mental models, Chunking

Subject Advantage in L1-English Learners’ Production of Chinese Relative Clauses

Nozomi Tanaka, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Indiana University

Alessia Cherici, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Indiana University

Abstract  This study investigated whether L1-English Chinese learners show a subject preference in their oral production of Chinese relative clauses (RCs) and whether they show animacy effects. We conducted a picture-based elicited production experiment that compared subject and object RCs, varying the object animacy between animate and inanimate. The results from thirty learners showed more targetlike performance in subject RCs than in object RCs, both at group and individual levels, regardless of object animacy. Error analyses revealed that more object RCs were converted into subject RCs than vice versa. These results point toward a clear subject preference despite conflicted findings in previous research on RCs in Chinese as a foreign language. Animacy influenced subject and object RCs alike: both types were easier to produce when featuring an inanimate object. We suggested similarity-based interference or distribution-based effects to account for this finding.

key words Relative clause, Elicited production, Asymmetry, Chinese as a foreign language

The Effect of Joint Production on the Accuracy and Complexity of Second Language Writing

Abstract  Although written corrective feedback and collaborative writing have been extensively researched in second language writing, there have been few ecologically valid classroom-based studies. To bridge the gap, the current study proposed joint production as a pedagogy to integrate teacher-scaffolded feedback and collaborative dialogue and aimed to examine its effect on the development of second language writing. A quasi-experimental study was undertaken on two intact groups of EFL learners over an academic semester of 18 weeks. Results showed that the experimental group (N = 30) outperformed the control group (N = 29) significantly in accuracy, confirming the effectiveness of joint production in promoting accuracy in L2 writing. Developmentally, accuracy was steadily developed over time and was negatively correlated with complexity. Possible explanations and implications of the findings are also discussed.

Key words  Joint production, Corrective feedback, Teacher scaffolding, Collaborative dialogue, Accuracy, Complexity

The Contribution of Radical Knowledge and Character Recognition to L2 Chinese Reading Comprehension

Jing Zhou, Department of Asian Languages and Literatures, Pomona College; School of English Studies, Zhejiang International Studies University

Abstract  Although there have been extensive theoretical discussions on the various component skills needed in comprehending texts in L2 English and L1 Chinese, empirical investigations on the component skills of L2 Chinese are scarce. This study attempts to fill in this gap by investigating the direct and indirect contributions of two lower-level latent component skills, radical knowledge and character recognition, to L2 Chinese passage-level reading comprehension. Radical knowledge was measured by a Receptive Semantic Radical Knowledge Test and a Semantic Radical Meaning Matching Test. Character recognition was assessed by a Lexical Decision Test and a Character Knowledge Test. Two tests, a Multiple-choice Test and a Cloze Test, were adopted to measure textual reading comprehension. The data were collected from 209 learners of Chinese as a second language (CSL). Radical knowledge was found to have a significant direct effect on character recognition and significant indirect effect on L2 Chinese reading through the mediation of character recognition. Character recognition was found to have a significant direct effect on reading comprehension. Taken together, this study suggests the importance of lower-level character and sub-character component skills to L2 Chinese reading.

Key words Radical knowledge, Character recognition, L2 Chinese, Reading comprehension

EFL Listening, Metacognitive Awareness, and Motivation: The Magic of L1-Mediated Metacognitive Intervention

Ghazaleh-Sadat Razavi, Department of English, Islamic Azad University

Ebrahim Fakhri Alamdari, Department of English, Islamic Azad University

Mehrshad Ahmadian, Department of English, Islamic Azad University

Abstract  This study strove to investigate the effect of L1-mediated metacognitive intervention (MI) on the listening comprehension performance, metacognitive awareness, and motivation of Iranian EFL learners. The participants were 330 upper-intermediate EFL learners in three groups, ranging from 17 to 25 years of age. The experimental groups (Ex1 = 110/Ex2 = 110) went through a guided lesson plan in metacognition in L2 (English) and L1 (Persian) for seventeen weeks, which focused on planning, monitoring, and evaluation. The control group (CG = 110), also instructed by the same teacher, listened to the same texts in L2 (English) without any guided attention to process. An actual IELTS TEST, the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) and a motivation questionnaire (LLOS-IEA) were used before and after the intervention to track changes in the listening performance, metacognitive awareness, and motivation. The overall results showed that MI caused a considerable variance in the listening performance, metacognitive awareness, and motivation in both experimental groups. The results also illustrated that the medium for the delivery of metacognitive intervention (L1) assisted the learners in experimental group two, who went through L1-mediated metacognitive intervention, to outperform their peers in experimental group one, who were taught in L2, and the control group, who were taught conventionally.

Key words Listening, L1-mediated metacognitive intervention, Metacognitive awareness, Motivation, EFL learners

Production of Sentential Negation in German and Italian Non-fluent Aphasia

Valantis Fyndanis, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Cyprus University of Technology; MultiLing/Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo; Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam

Gabriele Miceli, Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento

Rita Capasso, SCA Associates

Helene Killmer, MultiLing/Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo; Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam

Sonia Malefaki, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras

Kleanthes K. Grohmann, Department of English Studies, University of Cyprus

Abstract  The ability of persons with non-fluent aphasia (PWAs) to produce sentential negation has been investigated in several languages, but only in small samples. Accounts of (morpho)syntactic impairment in PWAs have emphasized various factors, such as whether the negative marker blocks or interferes with verb movement, the position of the Negation Phrase in the syntactic hierarchy or the interpretability of negation. This study investigates the ability of German- and Italian-speaking PWAs to construct negative sentences, as well as the role of verbal working memory (WM) capacity and education in task performance and production of sentential negation. German and Italian differ in the syntactic properties of the negative markers that are relevant here (nicht and non, respectively). A sentence anagram task tapping into the construction of negative and affirmative declarative sentences was administered to 9 German- and 7 Italian-speaking PWAs, and to 14 German- and 11 Italian-speaking age- and education-matched healthy volunteers. We fitted generalized linear mixed-effects models to the datasets. There was no significant difference between negative and affirmative sentences in either group of PWAs. There was a main effect of verbal WM capacity on task performance, but no interaction between verbal WM capacity and production of negative vs. affirmative sentences. Education did not affect task performance. The results are discussed in light of different linguistically-informed accounts of (morpho)syntactic impairment in non-fluent aphasia.

Key words Negation, Polarity, Non-fluent aphasia, Sentence anagram task, German, Italian, Verbal working memory, Education

Emotive Tonality of the "Youth–Old Age" Dichotomy in Russian and Chinese Media Discourses: The Stage of Psychosemantic Expertise

Abstract  The issue of attitude to age has the character of social stigma at different stages of human civilization, therefore, the identification of the general and particular in the assessments of the "youth–old age" dichotomy in different structural languages seems relevant. The results are based on the materials of an in-depth interview among 510 respondents belonging to different age groups: young, middle, and elderly; and 1257 respondents' responses. The in-depth interview covered 128 characteristics of interpersonal interaction. This made it possible to compile descriptor tables. The 54 characteristics identified were 27 bipolar scales. The objects of evaluation are characterized by 8 pole positions. A comparison was also made with data extracted from 368 articles in Russian and Chinese media. This work contributes to the understanding of the psycholinguistic processes of emotional perception of age in Russian and Chinese linguistic cultures.

Key words Classification of emotions, Old age, Sentiment analysis, Youth

How Can Orthographic Representations in Arabic Contribute to Phoneme Awareness Development?

Haitham Taha, The Cognitive Lab for Learning and Reading Research and the Learning Disabilities department, Sakhnin College for Teacher Education; The Learning Disabilities Department, Western Galilee College

Abstract   The contribution of the orthographic representations to the development of phonemic awareness in Arabic was tested among 289 native Arab readers from the second, the fourth, and the sixth grade. Phonemic awareness was tested by using two phonemic segmentation tasks: words and pseudowords. The participants’ words and pseudowords reading and spelling skills beside to orthographic knowledge were tested also. The results revealed that the accuracy levels of phoneme segmentation of words were higher than pseudowords for all ages. In addition, the results revealed that the pseudowords reading skills and the orthographic knowledge contributed significantly to the phoneme segmentations of words and pseudowords. The results were discussed in light of the assumption that in transparent orthographies, such like Arabic, the grain size of phoneme awareness development is contributed by capturing the correspondences between the phonology and the orthography and the orthographic representations development.

Key words Phonological awareness, Orthographic knowledge, Arabic Language, Diglossia, Reading

New Directions in L2 Self-efficacy Research: Comparing Bifactor and Second-Order Models in the English Public Speaking Domain

Xue Zhang, Foreign Languages Department, Changzhi University

Bruce W. Austin, Department of Kinesiology and Educational Psychology, Washington State University

Yuliya Ardasheva, Department of Teaching and Learning, Washington State University Tri-Cities Campus

Abstract   Reflecting an alternative model comparison framework and grounded in Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and in western and Chinese English Public Speaking (EPS) competences literature, we examine the possibility of a hierarchical structure of the EPS self-efficacy construct. In particular, we contrast an established first-order model of the EPS self-efficacy with two higher-order rival models, testing for subordinate (second-order model) versus nested (bifactor model) relationships in a sample of 203 Chinese EFL college students. From a theoretical perspective, the results supported the bifactor model as a strong conceptual foundation for understanding the EPS self-efficacy construct as nested. From a practical perspective, this conceptualization would allow for gauging EPS self-efficacy development both holistically and by subdomains. From a research methodology perspective, this study is among the first to bring the bifactor model into the broader field of L2 research. Other implications are discussed.

Key words  Bifactor model, Second-order model, Self-efficacy, English public speaking, English as a foreign language, Confirmatory factor analysis

Do Men Apply Differently Than Women? An Analysis of Language in Standardized Application Documents

Pia Magdalena Brandt, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces

Philipp Yorck Herzberg, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces

Abstract  Based on previous research about gender differences we investigated whether varying language utilization across gender can be found in standardized text documents such as job applications. To this end, 581 cover letters, CVs and complete application documents were analyzed using linguistic inquiry and word count. Some language differences between men and women could be shown, even if as expected, there were smaller effects than in comparative studies in less formalized contexts. These differences were specific for cover letters and CVs. A differentiated examination showed that gender differences in the cover letters were largely determined by function words. In contrast, differences in the CVs were mainly due to differences in content words. The findings add the context of recruiting to lend support to the framework of gender differences in language across different contexts. Implications for candidates, recruiters and companies are discussed.

Key words Gender differences, Linguistic inquiry and word count (LIWC), Function words, Recruiting

Using Data Mining, Text Mining, and Bibliometric Techniques to the Research Trends and Gaps in the Field of Language and Linguistics

Mehrdad CheshmehSohrabi, Department of Knowledge and Information Science, University of Isfahan

Amir Mashhadi, Department of English Language and Literature, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz

Abstract  This study adopted descriptive and explorative methods to analyze 2162 published documents, in general, and 1903 articles, in particular, in System from 1973 to 2020 based on the Scopus database. Data preprocessing and analysis were performed using data mining, text mining, and bibliometric techniques through Excel, VOSviewer, and RapidMiner software. To analyze the article titles and identify their themes, N-Grams was considered among the text mining techniques. From the data mining techniques, clustering was applied to explore the clusters of languages, educational technologies, technological spaces for foreign languages, etc. Bibliometric techniques such as co-authorship networks and citation analysis were in turn used to analyze the tops and trends of research in System. The results are classified into 5 categories including: (1) journal status; (2) publication trend; (3) articles with and without abstract/keyword; (4) highly-cited and uncited articles; (5) core and poor topics and keywords. The core topics are English as a Foreign Language, motivation, and second language acquisition. Among the languages, English, Chinese, and Japanese are at the top, and Italian, Danish, Persian, and Taiwanese are less discussed. Based on the findings, System has moved in line with its goals and scope, which are the applications of educational technology and applied linguistics to solve the problems of foreign language teaching and learning.

Key words Language and linguistics, Applied linguistics, Psycholinguistics, Research trends, Data mining analysis, Text mining analysis, Bibliometric analysis

Disambiguating Effects of Syllable Position and Neighborhood Size: Contributions of Hanja During Sino-Korean Processing

Yoolim Kim, Korea Institute, Harvard University; Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics, University of Oxford

Sandra Kotzor, Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics, University of Oxford; School of Education, Oxford Brookes University

Aditi Lahiri, Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics, University of Oxford

Abstract  A language’s writing system offers a complex lens through which to explore its lexicon. Korean’s bi-scriptal lexicon comprising its native script Hangul and Chinese Hanja, enables a unique window into what is and is not permissible in the language, as well as a chance to investigate how properties of the written form are reflected in the mental representation of the language. Through a novel priming paradigm, we investigated the effects of Hanja on visual word recognition in Hangul. In particular, we examined the effects of neighborhood size and syllable position of individual Sino-Korean morphemes. Although Hangul is the primary script, literate native Korean speakers are sensitive to the effects of Hanja; they are confronted with a lexicon written primarily in one (Hangul), but deeply influenced by another that is much less visible and commonly used (Hanja). We show that the contributions of Hanja are simply part and parcel of Sino-Korean lexical processing despite the asymmetry in use.

Key words Hangul and Hanja, Visual word recognition, Cross-script orthographic processing, Syllable position, Neighborhood size

The Importance of Morphological Knowledge in the Reading Comprehension Difficulties in a Highly Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Poor Comprehenders

Tevhide Kargin, Department of Special Education (TR), Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ankara University

Birkan Guldenoglu, Department of Special Education (TR), Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ankara University

Hilal Gengec, Department of Special Education (TR), Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale

Merih Toker, Department of Special Education (TR), Faculty of Education, Hasan Kalyoncu University

Abstract  This study examined the importance of morphological knowledge in the reading comprehension difficulties of poor comprehenders reading in a highly agglutinative language, Turkish. Participants were 56 students recruited from the second and third grades. In the assessment process, we applied three experimental paradigms addressing the participants' morphological and morpho-syntactical knowledge at the lexical and the supralexical levels. Data were collected in individual sessions and analyzed by running a series of GLM ANOVAs and calculating the Spearman–Brown correlation coefficient. Findings suggest morphological knowledge is an important indicator of reading comprehension difficulties in Turkish, a highly agglutinative language. The acquisition of adequate reading comprehension seems to be modified by particularities of the morphological knowledge.

Key words Reading, Reading comprehension, Morphology, Morpho-syntax, Morphological decoding

Investigation of the Relationship Between Animacy and L2 Learners’ Acquisition of the English Plural Morpheme

Yu Tamura, Faculty of Foreign Language Studies, Kansai University

Abstract  It has been argued that languages differ in the extent to which they allow plural forms of nouns according to the Animacy Hierarchy. Japanese distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns; the latter are less likely to receive plural markers (e.g., ?hon‑tachi), unlike English. This L1–L2 difference might cause difficulty in acquiring the plural morpheme. The present study thus investigates the influence of animacy on the processing of the English plural morpheme in online sentence processing. In this study, 34 Japanese university students engaged in a moving window version of a self-paced reading task, during which they also judged whether the number of words presented was one or two when prompted. If animacy matters, Japanese EFL learners might not show an interference effect of this second task for inanimate nouns. However, as no such effect was found, the prediction based on the animacy hierarchy was not confirmed.

key words  Animacy hierarchy, L1 influence, Stroop‑like number judgment task, Plurality, Number information

What Memory-Load Interference Tasks Tell Us about Spoken Relative Clause Processing

Abstract  The relationship between working memory (WM) and language processing has been extensively investigated in cognitive research. Previous studies mostly obtain evidence from measuring the involvement of WM in complex syntactic structures reported with well-established processing asymmetry, e.g., relative clauses (RCs) in English. Rarely considered is the role of WM in language whose RC processing asymmetry presents conflicting results, e.g., Chinese. This study addresses the research gap. Three experiments with a self-paced listening paradigm interfered with concurrent digit-load and lexical-decision interference were conducted on subject-extracted RCs (SRC) and object-extracted RCs (ORC). Listening times show no disparity between SRCs and ORCs, nor is either SRC or ORC processing more affected by syntactic complexity at comparable positions under each condition. Nevertheless, the post-sentence comprehension shows greater impairment in SRCs than ORCs. The results that memory load interfering does not differentially impair the availability of WM resources used for Chinese RC processing provide evidence for the specialization role of working memory. The findings demonstrate a dynamic, fluctuating wave pattern for Chinese RC processing. We argue that there is no RC processing asymmetry in Chinese.

Key words Mandarin Chinese, Spoken sentence processing, Processing asymmetry, Relative clauses, Working memory, Memory load interference

Linguistic Variation in Iranian University Student Graffiti: Examining the Role of Gender

Mostafa Morady Moghaddam, Department of English, Shahrood University of Technology

Neil Murray, Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick

Abstract  Research on the discursive features of graffiti in institutional settings is in its infancy and few studies have investigated the phenomenon and its implications in educational contexts. In this paper, we report on a study in which we employed systemic functional linguistics (Halliday in Learning how to mean, Edward Arnold, 1975). to probe communicative functions and gender differences in Iranian university student graffiti that appeared in all-male and all-female locations. The data comprised authentic instances of graffiti generated by students, analysis of which suggests that male and female university students each have their own distinctive motives for using graffiti, as realised in significant differences observed in the context-specific functions they perform. Graffiti pieces represented a distinctive and meaningful way of communicating, and its most salient features were creativity, simplicity and variation. Indications are that university students’ graffiti reflects psychological and social challenges, and the thoughts, attitudes and feelings expressed through it serve students’ personal and interactional purposes.

key words  Academic context, Educational psychology, Graffiti, Language functions, Linguistic variation

Can Translation Equivalents in L1 Activated by L2 Produce Homophonic Interference: An Eye Movement Study of Cross-Language Lexical Activation in Chinese English Learners

Jiaxin Ren, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University

Chuanwei Luo, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University

Yixin Yang, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University

Min Ji, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University

Abstract  This study used an eye-tracking method to examine whether Chinese translation equivalents activated by English prime words can continue to activate their Chinese homophones. With 30 English prime words, and 60 Chinese target words as materials, the experiment used a Tobii eye-tracking device to collect data from 30 university students while completing an English-Chinese lexical semantic-judgment task, aimed at investigating whether (1) when Chinese English learners see the English words, they can activate the homophones of Chinese translation equivalents; and (2) there is a word frequency effect in cross-language lexical activation, i.e., Chinese translation equivalents with different word frequencies have different effects on the activation speed. Compared with low-frequency Chinese translation equivalents, high-frequency Chinese equivalents can facilitate the activation faster and easier. The two research hypotheses were confirmed on several eye movement indicators, supporting the cross-language lexical activation as well as word-frequency effect of Chinese translation equivalents. This is also the first verification of cross-language dual-link lexical activation which engage both semantics and phonology, indicating that L2-L1 semantic activation has strong stability for further phonological activation.

Key words  Cross-language activation, Eye movement study, Word frequency effect, Homophonic interference

Choice of Mandarin Spatial Demonstratives in Distant Interaction

Ming Yue, Department of Linguistics, Zhejiang University

Boyang Sun, Department of Linguistics, Zhejiang University

Abstract  Scholars are divided on whether the Speaker’s (S’) choice of spatial demonstratives in verbal interaction is ego-centric or not. We studied the choice of “zhe (here)/ na (there)” by a Mandarin S instructing Hearer (H) from a few to dozens of meters. Using within-group and between-group experiments in a picture-description paradigm, we found that both S- and H- distance (Ds and Dh) to the Referent constantly influence S’ demonstrative choice, and the social relation as a variable (Relation) between S and H also exerts some influence. Our findings support the idea that spatial reference in verbal interaction is somewhat non-egocentric.

Key words Ego-centrism, Spatial demonstrative, Chinese, Verbal interaction, Social cognition

Investigating the Relationship Between Linguistic Competence, Ideal Self, Learning Engagement, and Integrated Writing Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Abstract  Existing studies on L2 motivation have established a significant association between ideal self, learning engagement, and academic achievement, but few have examined the internal relationships between these variables in the L2 writing domain. In addition, students’ linguistic competence, a fundamental element of writing achievement, remains underrepresented in most research on L2 integrated writing (IW). Considering that learner motivation and engagement may vary across different tasks, this study invited 589 Chinese secondary school students to complete tasks of story continuation (as an IW task) and linguistic competence, as well as a questionnaire relating to ideal writing self and engagement. Structural equation modeling results showed that: (a) linguistic competence was a significant direct predictor not only of students’ writing achievement but also of their ideal L2 writing selves; (b) despite the significant contribution of ideal L2 writing selves to the three kinds of learning engagement, only behavioral engagement was a distinctive and unique mediator that materialized students’ inner psychological drive towards writing performance. The pedagogical implications are discussed.

Key words Linguistic competence, Ideal L2 writing self, Learner engagement, Story continuation writing

Attitudes Toward Saudi English: Decentering the Inner-Circle

Raed A. Alzahrani, English Language Center, Institute of Public Administration; Department of Second Language Studies, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa

Abstract  This article reports on the first study to investigate Saudis’ attitudes toward Saudi English (SauE). To situate Saudi speakers’ attitudes within the sociolinguistic ecology of language use, this study invited 80 Saudi participants to respond to an audio stimulus featuring Indian English alongside SauE in an attempt to more realistically depict the use of English use in Saudi Arabia. This task was carried out using an Interactive Verbal Guise Technique (IVGT), an innovative approach in which listeners evaluate English varieties as they are used in a naturally occurring interaction. To supplement this indirect method, participants were asked to fill out an attitude questionnaire consisting of closed-ended and open-ended questions. The findings of the IVGT showed that participants rated the Saudi speaker highly in both power and solidarity scales. The responses on the attitude questionnaire also revealed expressions of ownership and legitimacy of SauE. By decentering inner-circle Englishes in the study of language attitudes, the results of this study suggest that ecologically valid studies of language attitudes can yield results which express ownership in local varieties of English.

Key words Saudi English, Attitudes, Verbal guise technique, Saudi learners, World Englishes

Scaffolding via Group-dynamic Assessment to Positively Affect Motivation, Learning Anxiety, and Willingness to Communicate: A Case Study of High School Students

Zeinab Azizi, Department of Teaching English and Linguistics, Ayatollah Ozma Burojerdi University; English Language Department, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Ayatollah Ozma Burojerdi University

Ayman Farid Khafaga, Department of English, College of Science and Humanities, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University; Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Suez Canal University

Abstract   Although a mass of studies has demonstrated the effectiveness of scaffolding through group-dynamic assessment (G-DA) in fostering English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' language skills and components, its contributions to developing psychological constructs, such as motivation, learning anxiety (LA), and willingness to communicate (WTC) have remained largely unexplored in the context of Iranian high schools. Thus, this study purported to disclose the contributions of G-DA to Iranian high school students’ motivation, LA, and WTC. For these purposes, 124 grade 11 students were chosen through a random sampling method at Shahed High School in Borujerd City, Iran, homogenized through the Oxford Quick Placement test (OQPT), and randomly allocated as a control group (CG) (n = 23) and an experimental group (EG) (n = 23). Afterward, a pre-test, interventions (for 16 one-hour sessions held two times a week as an extra-curricular program), and a post-test were implemented. The results of the independent samples t-tests evidenced that EG’s motivation significantly improved compared to CG after the interventions. Additionally, the findings revealed that the G-DA-based instruction significantly contributed to relieving EG’s LA. Further, the results uncovered that a statistically significant difference existed between EG and CG concerning the gains in WTC. The findings gained in this study are anticipated to contribute significantly to the various EFL settings, as well as they offer a variety of recommendations and implications for relevant stakeholders.

Key words Scaffolding, Group-dynamic assessment, Motivation, Learning anxiety, Willingness to communicate, Iranian high school students

Is Purple Lost in Translation? The Affective Meaning of Purple, Violet, and Lilac Cognates in 16 Languages and 30 Populations

Mari Uusküla, School of Humanities, Tallinn University

Christine Mohr, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne

Déborah Epicoco, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne

Domicele Jonauskaite, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne； Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna

Abstract Colour-emotion association data show a universal consistency in colour-emotion associations, apart from emotion associations with PURPLE. Possibly, its heterogeneity was due to different cognates used as basic colour terms between languages. We analysed emotion associations with PURPLE across 30 populations, 28 countries, and 16 languages (4,008 participants in total). Crucially, these languages used the cognates of purple, lilac, or violet to denote the basic PURPLE category. We found small but systematic affective differences between these cognates. They were ordered as purple > lilac > violet on valence, arousal, and power biases. Statistically, the cognate purple was the most strongly biased towards associations with positive emotions, and lilac was biased more strongly than violet. Purple was more biased towards high power emotions than violet, but cognates did not differ on arousal biases. Additionally, affective biases differed by population, suggesting high variability within each cognate. Thus, cognates partly account for inconsistencies in the meaning of PURPLE, without explaining their origins.

Key words Colour, Emotion, Cross-cultural, Semantics, Cross-modal associations

How do Chinese-English Bilinguals and Tibetan-Chinese-English Trilinguals Differ in Explicit and Implicit Aptitude?

Abstract This study seeks to empirically explore the relation between multilingual learning experiences and language aptitude. Through employing LLAMA aptitude test battery (Meara, 2005) and a probabilistic version of the serial reaction time (SRT) task (Kaufman et al., 2010), scores from 24 Chinese-English bilinguals and 24 Tibetan-Chinese-English trilinguals were analyzed with One-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). LLAMA-B, E, and F sub-tests measured explicit language aptitude, while LLAMA-D sub-test and SRT task measured implicit language aptitude, a cutting-edge that has gained sway in aptitude research. Qualitative and quantitative results showed that trilingual group performed better on the LLAMA-E sub-test than bilingual group, whereas bilingual group outperformed trilingual group on the SRT task. These findings suggested that trilinguals might possess higher explicit aptitude but lower implicit aptitude than bilinguals. Thus, prior language learning experiences might be positively (for explicit aptitude) or negatively (for implicit aptitude) correlated with language aptitude. Additionally, explicit aptitude and implicit aptitude might have a competitive relationship. Possible implications were discussed in this article.

Key words Language aptitude, Explicit and implicit aptitude,  Third language acquisition, Multilingualism

Power and Gender in Saudi Hijazi Proverbs: An Ideological-Cultural Study

 Meead Ghafoori, King Abdulaziz University

Tariq Elyas, King Abdulaziz University

Abstract  Proverbs generally reflect a nation’s social values, norms and attitudes. Several studies have looked into the representation of women in proverbs. However, such research on women’s portrayal in Arabic proverbs is scarce. The aim of this research is to explore the representations of women in Hijazi proverbs in Saudi Arabia. Twenty-five proverbs portraying women were selected from several authentic books of Hijazi using the Feminist critical discourse analysis approach. On one hand, the findings showed women were represented negatively as lacking intellectual maturity, failures, incapable of carrying out their tasks, bad-decision makers, inclined to bias, and the source of temptation for men. On the other hand, women were praised in a number of proverbs that confine them to particular restricted gender roles, such as mothers, wives and daughters. We argue that some of the Hijazi proverbs on women may represent negative images of women and that should not be encouraged, or perhaps that would be advisable not to encourage their use in Hijazi society or to refrain from using them when communicating with women.

Key words Feminist critical discourse analysis, Gender, Hijazi proverbs, Women

More Stable Memory Retention of Novel Words Learned from Fast Mapping than from Explicit Encoding

Shuang Chen, Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University

Yuejuan Wang, Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University

Weiwei Yan, Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University

Abstract  There is a heated debate on a learning paradigm known as “fast mapping” for its early neocortical dependence and retained memory over time for amnesic patients with hippocampal system damage. Whether the fast mapping allows hippocampus independent learning and induces rapid integration is poorly understood. The present study aims to investigate the effect of fast mapping on very long-term retention, which to our knowledge has not been previously explored. We tested memory retention ranging from 10 min to 1.5 years, for novel word-object associations learned from fast mapping or explicit encoding procedures. The three-alternative forced choice recognition task was employed to assess memory performance. Besides the slight adjustment of the testing schedule, other settings remained the same in Experiment 2 to replicate and verify the findings of Experiment 1. Results showed that overall memory retrieval performance was higher after explicit encoding as compared to fast mapping. However, retrieval performance after explicit encoding dropped after 1.5 years, but remained stable in the fast mapping condition. Furthermore, matching the semantic category of the known and the novel items during the fast mapping paradigm might affect long-term retention. These results suggest that fast mapping creates more stable long-term memory representations as compared to the explicit encoding strategy.

Key words   Long-term retention, Fast mapping, Explicit encoding, Decay pattern

Why do He and She Disagree: The Role of Binary Morphological Features in Grammatical Gender Agreement in German

Margret Seyboth, Department of Linguistics, University of Erfurt

Frank Domahs, Department of Linguistics, University of Erfurt

Abstract  In many languages, grammatical gender is an inherent property of nouns and, as such, forms a basis for agreement relations between nouns and their dependent elements (e.g., adjectives, determiners). Mental gender representation is traditionally assumed to be categorial, with categorial gender nodes corresponding to the given gender specifications in a certain language (e.g., [masculine], [feminine], [neuter] in German). In alternative models, inspired by accounts put forward in theoretical linguistics, it has been argued that mental gender representations consist of sets of binary features which might be fully specified (e.g., masc [+ m, − f], fem [− m, + f], neut [− m, − f]) or underspecified (e.g., masc [+ m], fem [+ f], neut [] or masc [+ m, − f], fem [], neut [− f]). We have conducted two experiments to test these controversial accounts. Native speakers of German were asked to decide on the (un-)grammaticality of gender agreement of visually presented combinations of I) definite determiners and nouns, and II) anaphoric personal pronouns and nouns in an implicit nominative singular setting. Overall, agreement violations with neuter das / es increased processing costs compared to violations with die / sie or der / er for masculine or feminine target nouns, respectively. The observed pattern poses a challenge for models involving categorial gender representation. Rather, it is consistent with feature-based representations of grammatical gender in the mental lexicon.

Key words Grammatical gender, Binary features, Underspecification, Markedness, Inflection

Women Versus Females: Gender Essentialism in Everyday Language

Solangel C. Troncoso, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan; Department of Women’s and Gender Studies, University of Michigan

Zach C. Schudson, Department of Psychology, California State University

Susan A. Gelman, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan

Abstract  How do different words referring to gender/sex categories reflect and/or shape our understanding of gender/sex concepts? The current study examined this issue by assessing how individuals use gender/sex terms (females, males, women, men). Participants recruited through MTurk (N = 299) completed an online survey, rating the terms on nine dimensions, completing a fill-in-the-blank task, and reporting gender essentialist beliefs. Overall, participants rated the words females/males as more biological and technical, and women/men as higher on all other dimensions (e.g., appropriate, polite, warm). Preference for females/males correlated positively with gender essentialism among women. These findings suggest that use of certain gendered terms is linked to how people conceptualize gender/sex. Future research should further explore the relation between choice of gendered terms, how language choice reflects and shapes attitudes and beliefs about gender/sex, and factors (e.g., race) that may influence this relation.

Key words Language, Gender, Sex, Gender/sex, Gender essentialism

Prosody Trumps Orthography in Second Language Phonology: The Case of Consonant Gemination

Mohammed Nour Abu Guba, Language Institute, The University of Sharjah

Abstract  This paper examines the understudied phenomenon of consonant gemination in the pronunciation of English among Levantine Arabic learners of English (LA learners). The very few studies that touched on gemination among LA learners attributed gemination to spelling in the target language (English). This study challenges this analysis and demonstrates that gemination is primarily a phonological phenomenon that is triggered by first language under-represented structural rules as well as Universal Grammar (UG) markedness principles. Data were elicited through semi-structured interviews with three groups of LA learners. Contrary to previous studies (on other phonological aspects), which argue that interference errors decrease over time, findings show that gemination is attested across all groups of LA learners and persists even among advanced learners. Results show that interface phenomena involving more than one phonological level pose a great challenge to second language learners.

Key words Arabic, Gemination, Interlanguage pronunciation, L1 interference, Universal Grammar

期刊简介

Journal of Psycholinguistic Research covers a broad range of approaches to the study of the communicative process, including: the social and anthropological bases of communication; development of speech and language; semantics (problems in linguistic meaning); and biological foundations. It also examines the psychopathology of language and cognition as well as the neuropsychology of language and cognition.

《心理语言学研究》广泛地涵盖语言交流过程中的研究方法，包括:交流的社会和人类学基础；言语和语言的发展；语义学(语言学意义上的问题)；生物学基础。期刊也也检查了语言和认知的精神病理学以及语言和认知的神经心理学。

The journal publishes carefully selected papers from the several disciplines engaged in psycholinguistic research, providing a single, recognized medium for communications among linguists, psychologists, biologists, sociologists, and others.

该杂志发表从事心理语言学研究的几个学科中精心挑选的论文，为语言学家、心理学家、生物学家、社会学家和其他人之间的交流提供了一个单一的、公认的平台。

官网地址：

https://www.springer.com/journal/10936

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