Language Teaching Research

Volume 27, Issue 1, January 2023

Language Teaching Research（SSCI一区，2022 IF：4.2，排名：10/194）2023年第1-3期共刊文42篇。具体来说，2023年第1期共发文10篇研究性论文。研究论文涉及传承语、学习动机、外语课堂中的正念、二语语音、纠正性反馈、汉字阅读、自我效能感等。2023年第2期共发文9篇论文，其中特刊文章4篇，常规研究性论文4篇，实务工作者研究1篇。研究论文涉及跨文化教学、培训干预、修辞知识、二语口语、学习动机等。2023年第3期共发文12篇论文，其中常规研究性论文10篇，实务工作者研究2篇。研究论文涉及中文EFL课堂创新、写作动机、数据驱动学习（DD）、协商反馈等。2023年4期共发文11篇论文，其中研究性论文10篇，实务工作者研究1篇。研究论文涉及学习者生成内容（LGC）、英语教学语言（EMI）、经验抽样法（ESM）等。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》 2022年第6期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》2022年第4-5期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》2022年第3期

目录

第1期

■ Heritage language learners’ written texts across pair types and interaction mode, by Julio Torres, Pages 5 – 29.

■ Examining the role of the learner and the teacher in language learning motivation, by Mairin Hennebry-Leung, Hu Amy Xiao, Pages 30 – 56.

■ Academic English education through research-informed teaching: Capturing perceptions of Bangladeshi university students and faculty members, by Md Golam Jamil, Pages: 57 – 79.

■ Commitment to the profession of ELT and an organization: A profile of expat faculty in South Korea, by Ian Moodie, Pages: 80 – 95.

■ Mindfulness in the foreign language classroom: Influence on academic achievement and awareness, by Luisa Zeilhofer, Pages: 96 – 114.

■ Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about second language pronunciation teaching, their experience, and speech assessments, by Aki Tsunemoto, Pavel Trofimovich, Sara Kennedy, Pages: 115 – 136.

■ Corrective feedback: Beliefs and practices of Vietnamese primary EFL teachers, by Xuan Van Ha, Jill C. Murray, Pages: 137 – 167.

■ Use of partial information to learn to read Chinese characters in non-native Chinese learners, by Yang Liu, Jie Zhang, Hong Li, Pages: 168 – 180.

■ Exploring an ESL teachers’ beliefs and practices of teaching literary texts: A case study in Hong Kong, by Anisa Cheung, Mairin Hennebry-Leung, Pages: 181 – 206.

■ The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning and English language learning achievements, by Barry Bai, Jing Wang, Pages: 207 – 228.

第2期

Special Issue Articles

■ Arts, language and intercultural education, by Mike Fleming, Pages: 261 – 275.

■ Channelling discomfort through the arts: A Covid-19 case study through an intercultural telecollaboration project, by Melina Porto, Irina Golubeva, Michael Byram, Pages: 276 – 298.

■Deliberate training and incidental learning through the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media: Capitalising on a European tool to enhance visual literacy and intercultural dialogue globally, by María-del-Carmen Méndez-García, Esther Cores-Bilbao, Pages: 299 – 331.

■ Key principles for an integrated intercultural literary pedagogy: An educational design research project on arts integration for intercultural competence, by Esther Schat, Ewout van der Knaap, Rick de Graaff, Pages: 332 – 358.

Regular Articles

■ Making fluency research accessible to second language teachers: The impact of a training intervention, by Parvaneh Tavakoli, Pages: 368 – 393.

■ Exploring college English teaching of rhetorical knowledge: A Legitimation Code Theory analysis, by Wenchao Zhao, Pages: 394 – 414.

■ The effects of different task sequences on novice L2 learners’ oral performance in the classroom, by Nayoung Kim, Pages: 415 – 440.

■ An exploratory motivational intervention on the construction of Chinese undergraduates’ ideal LOTE and multilingual selves: The role of near peer role modeling, by Tianyi Wang, Pages: 441 – 465.

Practitioner Research

■ Intervening with near-future possible L2 selves: EFL students as peer-to-peer motivating agents during Exploratory Practice, by Elizabeth Machin, Pages: 466 – 483.

第3期

Articles

• Spanish teachers’ beliefs on the usefulness of pronunciation knowledge, skills, and activities and their confidence in implementing them, by Charles Nagle, Rebecca Sachs, Germán Zárate-Sández, Pages:491-517.

• The complexity of control shift for learner autonomy: A mixed-method case study of Chinese EFL teachers’ practice and cognition, by Yi Wang, Jonathon Ryan, Pages:518-543.

• Language mindsets, perceived instrumentality, engagement and graded performance in English as a foreign language students, by Altay Eren, Anıl Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez, Pages: 544-574.

• Why only feedback? Including feed up and feed forward improves non-linguistic aspects of L2 writing, by Nourollah Zarrinabadi, Mohsen Rezazadeh, Pages:575-592.

• More than meets the ear: Individual differences in trait and state willingness to communicate as predictors of language learning performance in a Chinese EFL context, by Jiayi Zhang, Nadin Beckmann, Jens F. Beckmann, Pages:593-620.

• Incorporating project-based language learning into distance learning: Creating a homepage during computer-mediated learning sessions, by Fumie Kato, Ryan Spring, Chikako Mori, Pages:621-641.

• Synchronous VCMC with TalkAbroad: Exploring noticing, transcription, and learner perceptions in Spanish foreign-language pedagogy, by Matt Kessler, Shawn Loewen, Daniel Trego, Pages:642-659.

• Direct and indirect data-driven learning: An experimental study of hedging in an EFL writing class, by Xiaoya Sun, Guangwei Hu, Pages:660-688.

• EFL learners’ peer negotiated feedback, revision outcomes, and short-term writing development: The effect of patterns of interaction, by Azar Tajabadi, Moussa Ahmadian, Hamidreza Dowlatabadi, Hooshang Yazdani, Pages:689-717.

• Implementing explicit pronunciation instruction: The case of a nonnative English-speaking teacher, by Joshua Gordon, Pages:718-745.

  
  

Practitioner Research

• Exploring peer feedback processes and peer feedback meta-dialogues with learners of academic and business English, by Chris Banister, Pages:746-764.

• Co-constructing the assessment criteria for EFL writing by instructors and students: A participative approach to constructively aligning the CEFR, curricula, teaching and learning, by Huahui Zhao, Beibei Zhao, Pages:765-793.

第4期

Articles

• Learner-generated content and the lexical recall of beginning-level learners of Chinese as a foreign language, by Craig Lambert, Qian Gong, Grace Zhang, Grace Zhang, Pages:800-819.

• Tall trees; weak roots? A model of barriers to English language proficiency confronting displaced medical healthcare professionals, by Gabriel John Roberts, Pages:820-836.

• Beyond the threshold: Exploring English language proficiency, linguistic challenges, and academic language skills of Japanese students in an English medium instruction programme, by Ikuya Aizawa, Heath Rose, Gene Thompson, Samantha Curle, Pages:837-861.

• Understanding language teacher wellbeing: An ESM study of daily stressors and uplifts, by Tammy Gregersen, Sarah Mercer, Peter MacIntyre, Kyle Talbot, Claire Ann Banga, Pages:862-883.

• Towards an understanding of translanguaging in EMI teacher education classrooms, by Rui Yuan, Min Yang, Pages:884-906.

• Secondary school students’ enjoyment of English private tutoring: An L2 motivational self perspective, by Kevin Wai Ho Yung, Ming Ming Chiu, Pages:907-929.

• Examining the impact of abdominal enhancement techniques to assist Chinese-speaking English learners’ phoneme pronunciation, by Michael Yeldham, Pages: 930-957.

• The impact of L2 writing instructional approaches on student writing motivation and engagement, by Shulin Yu, Lianjiang Jiang, Pages:958-973.

• Examining fluctuations in the WTC of Japanese EFL speakers: Language proficiency, affective and conditional factors, by Rintaro Sato, Pages: 974-994.

• The imagination effect when using textual or diagrammatic material to learn a second language, by Olga Ignatova, Slava Kalyuga, John Sweller, Pages:995-1015.

• Harnessing the musician advantage: Short-term musical training affects non-native cue weighting of linguistic pitch, by Seth Wiener, Evan D. Bradley, Pages:1016-1031.

  
  

  Practitioner Research

• Facilitating English L2 learners’ intercultural competence and learning of English in a Taiwanese university, by Hung-Chun Wang, Pages:1032-1048.
  

第1期摘要

Heritage language learners’ written texts across pair types and interaction mode

Julio Torres, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

Abstract Task-based research has investigated the learning opportunities (e.g. language related episodes) that emerge during heritage and second language learner interactions during writing tasks. However, to date, it is unknown how these peer interactions involving heritage language learners contribute to written texts. Further, given the rise of social technologies in educational settings, a need exists to examine how interactions in digital platforms affect the production of written texts. To address these issues, 13 heritage-second language learner and 16 heritage–heritage learner pairs enrolled in advanced Spanish content courses completed two distinct versions of writing tasks. Participants were instructed that they were hired as business consultants for clothing and cellphone companies in Spain. While each participant wrote her or his own version, the pairs had to interact to compose formal business letters in Spanish to the CEO of each company justifying the hiring (Task A) or laying off (Task B) of employees. The main results first revealed that heritage–heritage pairs produced more syntactically complex business letters, as evidenced by a greater ratio of syntactic subordination along with a minor trend of greater morphosyntactic accuracy. Second, synchronous computer-mediated communication interactions led to a higher production of syntactic coordination, especially for the heritage-second language pairs. Findings are discussed in light of the interplay between learner factors and task environment.

Key words accuracy, heritage learners, peer interaction, SCMC, syntactic complexity

Examining the role of the learner and the teacher in language learning motivation

Mairin Hennebry-Leung, University of Tasmania, Australia

Hu Amy Xiao, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract Effective teaching practice requires that teachers know their students not as ‘faceless average learners’, but as individuals. The most individual of learner characteristics is personality, and yet language education research has made little progress in understanding the role of personality. As the field of language learning motivation seeks to develop frameworks for motivational teaching practice, a richer understanding of learners’ individuality is crucial in shaping practices that respond to learners’ needs. The present study examines the role of learners’ personality and teachers’ practice in shaping motivation and self-efficacy in language learning. Drawing on data gathered from 277 learners of English in Hong Kong, aged 11–14 years, and 24 lesson observations, across 10 classes, the study applies hierarchical multiple regression analysis to reveal a significant role of personality and teachers’ motivational practice in predicting language learning motivation and self-efficacy. Results reveal that while personality variables demonstrated large effect sizes for motivational orientations, teacher practice variables evidenced large effect sizes for language learning self-efficacy. Implications are discussed for theorization of language learning motivation and for teaching practice, with a particular emphasis on language teacher education.

Key words language instruction, language learning, motivation, personality, self-efficacy

Academic English education through research-informed teaching: Capturing perceptions of Bangladeshi university students and faculty members

Md Golam Jamil, University of Bristol, UK

Abstract This article arose in response to the recent impetus for embedding inquiry-based approaches in higher education. It draws upon the perceptions of students and faculty members regarding inquiry-based education in Academic English (AE) programmes at universities in Bangladesh within an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. Research-informed teaching (RIT), an intellectually stimulating and inquiry-based learning approach, is the conceptual base of the study. Data were collected from four Bangladeshi universities using a learning experience survey with students (n = 319) and semi-structured interviews with six EFL faculty members. The findings provide four guiding principles on the design and implementation of RIT-based AE programmes: (1) addressing wider educational objectives in AE education, (2) incorporating applied features in the learning activities, (3) building faculty members’ research literacy and practice, and (4) establishing academic collaboration across disciplines. While the findings are derived from Bangladesh higher education, the guiding principles and strategies have resonance internationally.

Key words academic English, application of learning, higher education, language learning, research-informed teaching

Commitment to the profession of ELT and an organization: A profile of expat faculty in South Korea

Ian Moodie, Mokpo National University, South Korea

Abstract Despite its attention in the field of education, occupational commitment has received little attention in language teaching research. To address this gap, the study generates an occupational commitment profile of expatriate English language teachers and investigates how commitment relates to their age, sex, teaching experience, and qualifications. Eighty-two native English-speaking teachers at a private university in South Korea participated in the study by completing a survey measuring their affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the profession of English language teaching (ELT) and to their workplace. The descriptive results indicated that the sample had high affective commitment to the profession of ELT but low overall commitment to their organization. Results from MANCOVA, which controlled for the covariates of age and sex, indicated that respondents with teacher qualifications from their home countries tended to have higher levels of affective and normative commitment to the profession of ELT and to their workplace than respondents without teacher qualifications. However, no differences in commitment were found between respondents with ELT qualifications and respondents without ELT qualifications, nor were any differences found in commitment associated with ELT experience. Because affective-normative dominant profiles are associated with better workplace outcomes, such as effort given to an organization and lower turnover intentions, further consideration of this finding should be of high priority in language teacher commitment research.

Key words English language teaching, language teacher cognition, occupational commitment, organizational commitment, South Korea, teacher commitment

Mindfulness in the foreign language classroom: Influence on academic achievement and awareness

Luisa Zeilhofer, Institute for Liberal Arts and Sciences, Kyoto University, Japan

Abstract Incorporating mindfulness into education has been linked to improving academic, social and emotional learning. This article describes an investigation of the implementation of meditative practices in a foreign language setting (German). Two classes underwent distinct varieties of meditation: The count-to-ten method and the guided meditation approach, whereas a third class served as a comparison group by not partaking in meditative activities. Meditative practices were implemented for a period of one year and data were collected on students’ academic achievement, measures of mindfulness, and evaluations of their perspectives on meditative practices. Results revealed that classes in the treatment conditions showed marked signs of academic achievement and increased awareness relative to the comparison group. Differences were revealed between the two meditation methods in terms of distinct aspects of mindfulness as measured by the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ). In addition, students showed a positive disposition towards meditative practices in general, which was measured by a new developed instrument: the five spheres of meditation experience survey (FSMES). Results suggest that meditative practices may play a role in designing and developing novel pedagogical practices.

Key words foreign language learning, German, higher education, meditation, mindfulness, second language acquisition

Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about second language pronunciation teaching, their experience, and speech assessments

Aki Tsunemoto, Concordia University, Canada

Pavel Trofimovich, Concordia University, Canada

Sara Kennedy, Concordia University, Canada

Abstract Teacher cognition has attracted increased attention among second language (L2) researchers and practitioners, likely because of its potential consequences for classroom practices, such as teaching and assessment. Prior research has revealed links between teacher beliefs about pronunciation teaching and teachers’ own experience (e.g. amount of teacher training and teaching experience). However, no research has to date focused on how teachers’ experience and their beliefs are intertwined, possibly affecting teacher assessments of L2 speakers’ pronunciation. For this study, 77 Japanese pre-service teachers of English completed an online questionnaire examining their beliefs about the teaching of English pronunciation and eliciting details about their L2 teaching and learning experience. Additionally, pre-service teachers assessed 40 Japanese secondary school students performing an extemporaneous speech task, rating these speakers for comprehensibility, accentedness, and fluency. Results showed that pre-service teachers could be categorized into two distinct profiles, defined by joint contributions of pre-service teachers’ experience (a mixture of language learning/teaching experience and pronunciation-related instruction) and their beliefs (teachability of L2 pronunciation and approaches to its teaching). Pre-service teachers with more experience appeared to be more skeptical about how (easily) L2 pronunciation can be learned and taught and also provided harsher accentedness ratings, compared to pre-service teachers with less experience, revealing links between experience, beliefs, and speech assessments. Taken together, the findings reveal how pre-service teachers’ experience might shape their beliefs and assessments, implying that teacher educators must encourage future teachers to hold positive views about the teachability of L2 pronunciation by shifting their attention toward communicatively oriented dimensions of L2 speech and by providing teachers with pedagogical skills to target these dimensions.

Key words accent, assessment, beliefs, comprehensibility, EFL, experience, fluency, Japanese, pre-service teachers, pronunciation

Corrective feedback: Beliefs and practices of Vietnamese primary EFL teachers

Xuan Van Ha, Macquarie University, Australia; Ha Tinh University, Vietnam

Jill C. Murray, Macquarie University, Australia

Abstract This study investigates Vietnamese EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding oral corrective feedback, exploring and seeking to explain some of the relationships between beliefs and classroom practices. Data were collected in primary schools in Vietnam, and consist of 24 classroom observations and interviews with six teachers. Overall, the teachers showed high levels of awareness of the benefits of oral corrective feedback. They nominated pronunciation errors as the most important target for correction in the primary context. In practice, although pronunciation and grammar accounted for the majority of the total errors, leading to the majority of total feedback moves, the frequency of feedback per error was much higher for vocabulary errors. Prompts were reported by teachers to be more effective and more favourable than reformulations, but this preference was not reflected in the classroom observations, in which a large number of didactic recasts were used. The observed discrepancies are interpreted in relation to contextual factors and the influence of different sets of beliefs on practices. It was also noted that the linguistic realizations of these teachers’ feedback moves contained some inaccuracies. Implications for educational practice are discussed.

Key words beliefs, correction, corrective feedback, practices, Vietnam, young learners

Use of partial information to learn to read Chinese characters in non-native Chinese learners

Yang Liu, Western Kentucky University, USA

Jie Zhang, University of Houston, USA

Hong Li, Beijing Normal University, China

Abstract The ability to decode new words of varying degrees of orthographic-phonological mapping is an important word recognition skill across languages. Chinese characters represent three types of phonetic regularity: regular, semi-regular, and irregular depending on the degree of reliability of the pronunciation information provided by the phonetic component. This study investigated whether adult non-native Chinese learners can use partial phonological information encoded in semi-regular characters to learn the pronunciations of new characters. A total of 55 college students, enrolled in an intensive Chinese program with varying proficiency levels, were taught the pronunciations of 18 novel compound characters of three phonetic regularity types over three trials. Non-native Chinese learners of advanced and intermediate levels learned the pronunciations of regular characters (initial-same and final-same), which contain full information about pronunciation, and semi-regular characters (initial-different, final-same), which contain partial information about pronunciation, significantly better than irregular characters (initial-different and final-different), which contain misleading pronunciation information. The performance difference between semi-regular and irregular characters decreased over trials. Novice students demonstrated limited ability in using partial information to learn to pronounce characters compared to intermediate and advanced students. These results provide implications for effective character instruction for adult learners of Chinese with varying Chinese proficiency levels.

Key words Chinese character learning, Chinese as foreign language learners, Chinese proficiency level, orthographic regularity, partial information

Exploring an ESL teachers’ beliefs and practices of teaching literary texts: A case study in Hong Kong

Anisa Cheung, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong

Mairin Hennebry-Leung, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract Although much has been written about the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices, research examining the role of emotions in the realm of teacher cognition remains limited. This article presents a case study investigating one English as a second language (ESL) teacher’s beliefs and practices about teaching literary texts, drawing on Zembylas’ three levels of teacher emotions (2002, 2005), i.e. intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup, as the conceptual framework. The ESL teacher’s beliefs and practices were investigated via open-ended interviews and lesson observations that explored her perceptions of teaching literary texts throughout one academic year. The findings point to the complexity of teacher practices which may converge or diverge with their beliefs. Various contextual factors were found to contribute to this complexity. The results highlight the need to situate the emotions of teachers beyond contextual factors and consider the dynamic nature of teacher cognition. The practical value of the study lies in its extension of the role of emotions in mediating teacher cognition.

Key words curriculum innovations, teachers’ beliefs, teacher cognition, teacher practices

The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning and English language learning achievements

Barry Bai, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Jing Wang, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract This study examined the role of growth mindset, self-efficacy, and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning (SRL) and English language learning achievements in Hong Kong primary school students. A sample of 690 4th graders participated in the study. The findings suggest that the level of SRL strategy use (i.e. monitoring, effort regulation, and goal setting and planning) was driven by the students’ motivational beliefs (i.e. growth mindset, self-efficacy, and intrinsic value) in different ways. Monitoring and effort regulation, in turn, were significant contributors to the participants’ English language learning achievements, but goal setting and planning did not predict their English language learning achievements. The finding suggests that growth mindset was a stronger predictor of SRL than self-efficacy and intrinsic value. Implications for fostering adaptive motivational beliefs and SRL are discussed. Future research should consider the influence of the socio-cultural context on the relationships between motivational factors, SRL strategy use, and English language learning achievements.

Key words English as a second language (ESL), English language learning achievements, growth mindset, intrinsic value, self-efficacy, self-regulated learning

第2期摘要

Arts, language and intercultural education

Mike Fleming, Durham University, UK

Abstract This article is structured around four questions related to the arts, language and intercultural education. Are the claims for the value of the arts over-stated? Does the use of the arts in the service of non-art outcomes run the risk of distorting the art form itself? Is there a danger that incorporating the arts in language education will distract from its central purpose? Are there any risks in employing the arts to support the teaching of interculturalism? These questions are used as a focus for discussing theoretical perspectives in the arts, including justifying the arts, theories of art, the importance of form, the concept of ‘aesthetic experience’, ‘learning in’ and ‘learning through’ the arts. These issues are examined in order to illuminate practical implications related to the use of the arts in the context of language and intercultural education. The article highlights the way in which theoretical perspectives can help widen pedagogic horizons.

Key words aesthetics, arts, intercultural, language, Wittgenstein

Channelling discomfort through the arts: A Covid-19 case study through an intercultural telecollaboration project

Melina Porto, Universidad Nacional de La Plata and CONICET (National Research Council), Argentina

Irina Golubeva, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA

Michael Byram, Durham University, UK and Guest Research Professor, Sofia University St Kliment Ohridski, Bulgaria

Abstract In this article we argue, in the context of the current dominance of the performative and instrumental drives characterizing the accountable university, that language and intercultural communication education in universities should also be humanistic, addressing ‘discomforting themes’ to sensitize students to issues of human suffering and engage them in constructive and creative responses to that suffering. We suggest that arts-based methods can be used and illustrate this with an intercultural telecollaboration project created in response to the Covid-19 pandemic of 2020. In this way language and intercultural communication education can become a site of personal and social transformation albeit modest and piecemeal as part of a longer process. Through arts-based methodologies and pedagogies of discomfort, Argentinian and US undergraduates explored how the theme of the Covid-19 crisis has been expressed artistically in their countries, and then communicated online, using English as their lingua franca, to design in mixed international groups artistic multimodal creations collaboratively to channel their suffering and trauma associated with the pandemic. This article analyses and evaluates the project. Data comprise the students’ artistic multimodal creations, their written statements describing their creations, and pre and post online surveys. Our findings indicate that students began a process of transformation of disturbing affective responses by creating artwork and engaging in therapeutic social and civic participation transnationally, sharing their artistic creations using social media. We highlight the powerful humanistic role of education involving artistic expression, movement, performativity, and community engagement in order to channel discomforting feelings productively at personal and social levels.

Key words arts-based methods, Covid-19 crisis, intercultural education, pedagogies of discomfort, self and social transformation, telecollaboration

Deliberate training and incidental learning through the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media: Capitalising on a European tool to enhance visual literacy and intercultural dialogue globally

María-del-Carmen Méndez-García, University of Jaén, Spain

Esther Cores-Bilbao, University of Huelva, Spain

Abstract This article addresses visual literacy as a crucial competence for fostering intercultural literacy and intercultural dialogue. Visual literacy has been defined as a combination of skills needed to interpret the meaning of images, latent reasons behind their making and their impact on audiences. Individuals need to develop such skills to critically read the ‘vocabulary’ (content) and ‘grammar’ (composition) of images they are constantly flooded with to fully understand and appreciate the underlying meaning of visual representations of their own culture and other cultures, as well as the people belonging to different cultural groups. The Council of Europe’s Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media (AIEVM) has been designed to promote interculturality through the reflection on the other, as portrayed in visuals. By analysing AIEVMs produced by 18 adult learners of English in two contexts – featuring explicit intercultural training prior to AIEVM completion vs. its application without such previous input – the present study examines the impact of pertinent training in visual and intercultural competence development. The data suggest heightened levels of metacognition and critical thinking in the former context. Results for both groups also disclose the development of a powerful sense of self-discovery and empathy toward alterity, induced by the commonalities detected between the respondents themselves and the depicted. Overall, implementing the AIEVM seems to narrow the gap between the intercultural awareness discerned in both contexts, yet the dissimilar depth of the narratives produced corroborates the value of prior intercultural learning. The article concludes with a critical overview of the potential of the AIEVM, comprising prospective courses of action to supplement this instrument to sharpen users’ visual literacy and boost deeper intercultural reflection.

Key words Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media (AIEVM), intercultural development, intercultural literacy, intercultural mediation of images, visual literacy

Key principles for an integrated intercultural literary pedagogy: An educational design research project on arts integration for intercultural competence

Esther Schat, Utrecht University, Netherlands

Ewout van der Knaap, Utrecht University, Netherlands

Rick de Graaff, Utrecht University, Netherlands

Abstract Intercultural competence in foreign language teaching has gained importance in recent times. Although current work has highlighted the advantages of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) for intercultural development, little is known about its potential for teaching literature in secondary schools. Treating literature itself as an art form, the aim of this article is to formulate research-based design principles for an integrated intercultural literary pedagogy (IILP) that may foster intercultural competence through arts integration in foreign language classes. This article reports on the process of evaluating IILP-based pilot lesson materials in pre-university education in the Netherlands. Educational design research was applied as a method that encompasses the systematic study of designing, developing, and evaluating educational interventions through an iterative process of evaluation with stakeholders. Three iterations of formative evaluation were conducted, with additions to the tentative design principles following each of the first two iterations. The process resulted in a set of four refined principles. Results also illustrated the effectiveness of IILP-based lesson materials for intercultural competence. Although participating students encountered some difficulties relating to the functionality of the design, the students appreciated its social relevance and reported that the processing of literary texts through dialogic tasks with peers in the target language fostered intercultural language learning.

Key words arts integration, content and language integrated learning, educational design research, foreign language teaching, intercultural competence, literary pedagogy

Making fluency research accessible to second language teachers: The impact of a training intervention

Parvaneh Tavakoli, University of Reading, UK

Abstract The study reported in this article was aimed at investigating whether making the findings of second language fluency research accessible to language teachers has an impact on their self-reported understanding of the concept of oral fluency, confidence in promoting it, and classroom practice in short and medium term. The data come from 106 initial and 32 delayed questionnaires, eliciting both qualitative and quantitative data, from second language teachers in England after attending a one-day research-informed and practice-oriented training workshop. The results indicate a positive impact of the intervention on teachers’ understanding of fluency, confidence in helping their learners, and self-reported practice in short term, with the impact being reported 10–12 weeks after the intervention. The findings imply that adopting a narrow perspective to defining and conceptualizing fluency is linked with a more in-depth understanding of fluency and enhanced confidence and ability for using fluency-focused classroom activities.

Key words oral fluency, professional development, teacher practice, teaching–research divide, teacher understanding

Exploring college English teaching of rhetorical knowledge: A Legitimation Code Theory analysis

Wenchao Zhao, Henan University of Science and Technology, China

Abstract Despite a voluminous literature addressing English language teaching, the explorations focused on knowledge-building are rather limited in number. This is particularly the case with China’s tertiary English education. Unlike existing research, this study investigated Chinese college English teachers’ knowledge-building about rhetorical figures by drawing on the ideas of Autonomy and Semantics in Legitimation Code Theory. Designed as sequential mixed-method research with a development purpose, the study takes as its analytical data the pedagogic discourse generated in the finals of China’s National College English Teaching Context. It was found that the knowledge practices about rhetorical figures vary, for one thing, in their likelihood of shifting to introjected codes and returning to the initial sovereign code and the motivations for their possible drift into exotic codes; and for another, in whether they are unpacking-oriented, repacking-oriented, or unpacking-and-repacking-integrated. With this, the study demonstrated how varied knowledge practices in English language teaching or English-medium teaching can be portrayed, distinguished and explicated in terms of autonomy and semantic code shifts and by reference to their display of autonomy pathways and semantic profiles. The study also makes contributions by actualizing the perspectival complementarity between Autonomy and Semantics in describing and interpreting pedagogic practices, shedding light on the design and improvement of knowledge-building in both English language teaching and disciplinary teaching, and highlighting the necessity of developing non-native English teachers’ metalinguistic awareness of Legitimation Code Theory and systemic functional linguistics.

Key words autonomy pathways, college English teaching, knowledge-building, Legitimation Code Theory, rhetorical figures, semantic profiles

The effects of different task sequences on novice L2 learners’ oral performance in the classroom

Nayoung Kim, Korea Polytechnics, South Korea

Abstract This study investigated the optimum task sequence for second language (L2) novice learners of English. One set of task sequences was manipulated using a deductive and theoretical SSARC (simplify–stabilize–automatize–restructure–complexify) model, and two sets of task sequences were manipulated based on a teacher’s inductive classroom observations. A total of 76 undergraduates at a private university in Korea were divided into three groups for the task sequences: task complexity (TC), guided planning with vocabulary (GPV), and guided planning with content (GPC). While the four oral tasks were sequenced according to the resource-directing dimensions [± elements] and [± reasoning] in all three groups, the TC group received pretask planning, the GPV group received teacher-led guided planning with words, and the GPC group received teacher-led guided planning with content for the resource-dispersing dimensions. Pretest and posttest of syntactic complexity, accuracy, and fluency were used as the main data. The analysis showed that the TC group outperformed the GPV and GPC groups significantly in increasing overall syntactic complexity, and the GPV group outperformed the GPC group significantly in improving speed fluency. Both sequencing TC and GPV tasks significantly increased syntactic complexity and speed fluency. Sequencing TC tasks decreased accuracy and increased dysfluency, whereas sequencing GPV tasks increased accuracy and decreased dysfluency. Meanwhile, sequencing GPC tasks did not produce overall positive effects on oral performance compared with the two other groups.

Key words guided planning, novice L2 learners, SSARC model, task complexity, task design, task sequence

An exploratory motivational intervention on the construction of Chinese undergraduates’ ideal LOTE and multilingual selves: The role of near peer role modeling

Tianyi Wang, University of Cambridge, UK

Abstract While interest in the learning of a language other than English (LOTE) has increased, research on how to foster learners’ motivation towards learning a LOTE is still scarce. With a specific focus on learners’ ideal LOTE and multilingual selves, this article reports on an intervention study which employed near peer role model (NPRM) to construct Chinese undergraduates’ LOTE learning motivation. The research aim was to explore the role of the near peer role modeling in nurturing the development of the LOTE-related facets of learners’ ideal selves. Open questionnaires, interviews and written journals were used to collect data at one Chinese university over the course of one academic term. Findings provide context-dependent evidence that the presentation of NPRMs in class may strengthen both of learners’ ideal LOTE and their multilingual selves, mainly because it demonstrates approachable examples which manifest the value of learning a LOTE in a particular social context. With the help of the NPRMs, learners may not only alleviate their ambiguity about the availability of LOTE-using opportunities in their situated contexts but also deepen their understanding of how ‘being multilingual’ could benefit their future development. Pedagogical implications emphasize the effectiveness of near peer role modeling in developing learners’ self-identification with being a LOTE user or a multilingual in the future.

Key words a motivational intervention, ideal LOTE self, ideal multilingual self, LOTE learning motivation, near peer role model

Intervening with near-future possible L2 selves: EFL students as peer-to-peer motivating agents during Exploratory Practice

Elizabeth Machin, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain

Abstract The present study offers insights on understanding motivation to learn a second language (L2) through implementation of the Exploratory Practice principles within the context of English as a foreign language at a university in Spain, and on discovering opportunities to enhance this. The account sits within the domain of the possible selves and the theoretical framework of the L2 Motivational Self System. Student-led visualisation – a twist on teacher-led visualisation – is the key ‘Potentially Exploitable Pedagogic Activity’ (PEPA), explored as a device for inviting a near-future L2 self-guide into the here-and-now. This PEPA evolved out of stages of understanding, including student dismissal as ‘fantasies’ their possible professional L2 selves in a remoter future. Through classroom observation, template analysis of imagery scripts, and student oral and written feedback, the present study finds that the students demonstrated motivated L2 behaviour in group writing about the near-future ideal L2 self and in introducing this self-guide to their peers, who were moved by and found plausible the stories they heard.

Key words English as a foreign language, Exploratory Practice, identity, investment, L2 learning experience, L2 self, motivated behaviour, self-discrepancy, visualisation

第3期摘要

Spanish teachers’ beliefs on the usefulness of pronunciation knowledge, skills, and activities and their confidence in implementing them

Charles Nagle, Iowa State University, USA

Rebecca Sachs, Sandy Spring Friends School, USA

Germán Zárate-Sández, Western Michigan University, USA

Abstract Despite substantial advances in the field of instructed second language acquisition (SLA) with regard to our understanding of second language (L2) pronunciation development and pedagogy, many language instructors continue to report a lack of confidence in incorporating pronunciation instruction (PI) into their classes. This survey study examined 100 Spanish instructors’ perceptions of the usefulness of various types of knowledge, skills, and approaches to PI, as well as their confidence in those domains, and the extent to which their previous training in teaching methods was related to their ratings of usefulness and confidence. After running principal components analyses to identify factors in the survey data, we fit mixed-effects models to each factor, then delved more deeply into some descriptive trends to offer recommendations for professional development opportunities. The latter results suggested that Spanish teachers might have greater appreciation for, as well as confidence in, focusing on segmentals over suprasegmentals, practice activities over assessment, perception assessment over production assessment, and implicit over explicit feedback. Consistent with previous research, some of the highest confidence levels were expressed regarding controlled techniques, alongside relatively low confidence in familiarity with research. Concerning metalinguistic tools, respondents seemed to value diagrams and descriptions over terminology and transcription, but they viewed these tools as less useful than perception, production, and communication practice. While greater training was often associated with higher perceptions of usefulness and confidence, there were cases where respondents with the least training showed the highest confidence. These results suggest some key priorities for teacher training.

Key words aesthetics, arts, intercultural, language, Wittgenstein

The complexity of control shift for learner autonomy: A mixed-method case study of Chinese EFL teachers’ practice and cognition

Yi Wang, Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand and Shandong University of Technology, China

Jonathon Ryan, Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand

Abstract The present study offers insights on understanding motivation to learn a second language (L2) through implementation of the Exploratory Practice principles within the context of English as a foreign language at a university in Spain, and on discovering opportunities to enhance this. The account sits within the domain of the possible selves and the theoretical framework of the L2 Motivational Self System. Student-led visualisation – a twist on teacher-led visualisation – is the key ‘Potentially Exploitable Pedagogic Activity’ (PEPA), explored as a device for inviting a near-future L2 self-guide into the here-and-now. This PEPA evolved out of stages of understanding, including student dismissal as ‘fantasies’ their possible professional L2 selves in a remoter future. Through classroom observation, template analysis of imagery scripts, and student oral and written feedback, the present study finds that the students demonstrated motivated L2 behaviour in group writing about the near-future ideal L2 self and in introducing this self-guide to their peers, who were moved by and found plausible the stories they heard.

Key words Chinese EFL classroom innovation, control shift, language teacher cognition, learner autonomy, teaching practices

Language mindsets, perceived instrumentality, engagement and graded performance in English as a foreign language students

Altay Eren, Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, Turkey

Anıl Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez, Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, Turkey

Abstract This study aimed to examine the relationships between English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ language mindsets (i.e. entity and incremental beliefs about general language intelligence, second language aptitude, and age sensitivity in language learning) and graded performance by considering the mediating roles of their perceived instrumentality as well as four aspects of engagement (i.e. agentic engagement, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement) within English classes. A total of 526 EFL students voluntarily participated in the present study. A latent factor correlation analysis, a series of multiple regression analyses, and a structural equation modeling analysis were conducted to analyse the data. The results showed that EFL students’ language mindsets, four aspects of engagement, perceived instrumentality, and graded performance were significantly and selectively related to each other. The results also demonstrated that the relationship between incremental beliefs about second language aptitude and graded performance was fully mediated by perceived instrumentality, that the relationship between incremental beliefs about general language intelligence and graded performance was fully mediated by agentic engagement, and that the relationship between perceived instrumentality and graded performance was partially mediated by agentic engagement. Theoretical and practical implications for EFL learning, teaching, and educational policymaking processes are also discussed in the study.

Key words engagement, English as a foreign language, graded performance, language mindsets, perceived instrumentality

Why only feedback? Including feed up and feed forward improves non-linguistic aspects of L2 writing

Nourollah Zarrinabadi, University of Isfahan, Iran

Mohsen Rezazadeh, University of Isfahan, Iran

Abstract This study examined the effect of feedback, feed up (comments on goals and students’ success in achieving goals) and feed forward (comments on the next step in learning during the semester) on writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety. Two hundred and ten female intermediate language learners (agemean = 17.2) were assigned to seven experimental conditions: feedback, feed up, feed forward, feedback + feed up, feedback + feed forward, feed up + feed forward, and feedback + feed up + feed forward (n = 30 for each group). Based on group assignment, the participants received feedback, feed up, and feed forward for 12 sessions and took writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety scales as pretest and posttest. The results of MANOVA and paired samples t-test comparisons indicated that groups that received feedback significantly improved in terms of self-efficacy. In addition, groups who received feed up and feed forward significantly improved in terms of writing motivation. The results also showed that the combination of feedback, feed up and feed forward could decrease learners’ writing anxiety. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that teachers present feed up and feed forward along with feedback to improve non-linguistic aspects of L2 writing among their students.

Key words feedback;feed forward;feed up;writing anxiety;writing motivation;writing self-efficacy

More than meets the ear: Individual differences in trait and state willingness to communicate as predictors of language learning performance in a Chinese EFL context

Nourollah Zarrinabadi, University of Isfahan, Iran

Mohsen Rezazadeh, University of Isfahan, Iran

Abstract This study examined the effect of feedback, feed up (comments on goals and students’ success in achieving goals) and feed forward (comments on the next step in learning during the semester) on writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety. Two hundred and ten female intermediate language learners (agemean = 17.2) were assigned to seven experimental conditions: feedback, feed up, feed forward, feedback + feed up, feedback + feed forward, feed up + feed forward, and feedback + feed up + feed forward (n = 30 for each group). Based on group assignment, the participants received feedback, feed up, and feed forward for 12 sessions and took writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety scales as pretest and posttest. The results of MANOVA and paired samples t-test comparisons indicated that groups that received feedback significantly improved in terms of self-efficacy. In addition, groups who received feed up and feed forward significantly improved in terms of writing motivation. The results also showed that the combination of feedback, feed up and feed forward could decrease learners’ writing anxiety. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that teachers present feed up and feed forward along with feedback to improve non-linguistic aspects of L2 writing among their students.

Key word Big-Five personality traits;individual differences;language learning performance;trait-relevant states;willingness to communicate

Incorporating project-based language learning into distance learning: Creating a homepage during computer-mediated learning sessions

Fumie Kato, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Ryan Spring, Tohoku University, Japan

Chikako Mori, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Abstract This quasi-experimental study reports on the outcomes of a video-synchronous learning program in which an element of project-based foreign language learning was integrated. The project chosen was to cooperatively create a homepage. American students learning Japanese in the United States and Japanese students learning English in Japan made pairs and communicated in both their native and target languages via Skype to complete the project. The goals of this educational program were to increase intrinsic motivation in learners and improve their target language oral abilities, and identify challenges and problems with implementation. The program was conducted during the spring semester in 2017 and evaluated both quantitatively (via pre- and posttests) and qualitatively (via surveys and reflection papers). The results show that both groups of students had improved their mean length of utterance in their target language, a strong indicator of increased speaking ability. Furthermore, qualitative analysis showed their motivation levels increased as compared to previous similar programs. Although the majority of the students were interested in creating a homepage, there were some technical problems with the homepage creation software.

Key words homepage;interpersonal speaking abilities;intrinsic motivation;project-based language learning;Skype exchange

Synchronous VCMC with TalkAbroad: Exploring noticing, transcription, and learner perceptions in Spanish foreign-language pedagogy

Matt Kessler, University of South Florida, USA

Shawn Loewen,

Daniel Trego, Michigan State University, USA

Abstract This mixed-methods study investigates the use of synchronous video computer-mediated communication (SVCMC) in a U.S. university’s Spanish-as-a-foreign-language curriculum. Using the SVCMC platform TalkAbroad, the university’s Spanish program required second-year students to participate in five, 30-minute, SVCMC conversations with Spanish first language (L1) speakers. Students then reflected on their SVCMC conversations by replaying the recorded audio from those sessions and transcribing passages of their conversations. Using an interactionist perspective, this research explores the utility of: (1) the SVCMC conversations, and (2) the subsequent listening/transcription activity by examining students’ reported noticing of linguistic items (e.g. L1 speaker vocabulary, grammar, etc.). Additionally, we report students’ general perceptions of engaging in SVCMC with TalkAbroad. Students’ noticing and perceptions were investigated using a combination of two questionnaires (N = 35) that were administered following (1) the SVCMC, and (2) the listening/transcription activity, along with semi-structured interviews (n = 10). Findings suggest both the SVCMC and listening/transcription activities are effective in promoting the noticing of vocabulary and content, but not grammar. Finally, students generally reported positive perceptions of engaging in SVCMC for the purposes of L2 learning. Related implications for pedagogy and curriculum design are discussed.

Keyword CMC;computer-mediated communication;noticing;pedagogy;Spanish;video

Direct and indirect data-driven learning: An experimental study of hedging in an EFL writing class

Xiaoya Sun, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Xi’an International Studies University, China

Guangwei Hu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

Abstract  This article reports on an experimental study that set out to investigate and compare the effectiveness of a direct and an indirect approach to data-driven learning (DDL) in facilitating Chinese learners’ mastery of a challenging type of lexico-grammatical resource (i.e. hedges) in an undergraduate English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) writing class. The study adopted a pretest/posttest/delayed posttest randomized two treatment design. The two experimental groups received, respectively, direct and indirect DDL instruction in the use of hedges in English academic writing. The direct approach involved students in conducting guided searches and analyses of target hedges in online corpora, whereas the indirect approach featured the use of corpus-informed, paper-and-pen learning tasks. Within- and between-group analyses of the participants’ performances on the three tests yielded evidence of both the strengths and limitations of the two approaches. A questionnaire survey revealed the participants’ favorable attitudes toward the incorporation of corpora in classroom teaching, as well as their perceptions of the affordances and constraints of DDL. The article concludes with a discussion of the present study’s limitations and recommendations for future DDL research in EFL classrooms.

Keyword computer-assisted language learning, data-driven learning (DDL), direct and indirect DDL, English as a foreign language, hedges in English academic discourse

EFL learners’ peer negotiated feedback, revision outcomes, and short-term writing development: The effect of patterns of interaction

Azar Tajabadi, Arak University, Iran

Moussa Ahmadian, Arak University, Iran

Hamidreza Dowlatabadi, Arak University, Iran

Hooshang Yazdani, Arak University, Iran

Abstract  Inspired by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Storch’s framework of peer interaction, this study investigated the nature and outcome of peer interaction in EFL (English as a foreign language) learners’ peer review and revision activities. During two 16-week semesters, 32 lower-intermediate learners participated in an Advanced Writing university course. Each of the learners wrote and revised six one-paragraph writing assignments and exchanged peer negotiated feedback in pairs. The qualitative analysis of their recorded dialogues revealed that although the learners were nearly at the same proficiency level, they adopted a variety of patterns of interaction including collaborative, expert/novice, dominant/dominant, and dominant/passive. Collaborative and dominant/passive patterns were the most and the least frequent patterns, respectively. The analysis of feedback types indicated that the collaborative pairs exchanged the highest number of feedback in total and could extend their focus to content and organization of the texts more than the other pairs. The lowest number of feedback was observed in pairs adopting a dominant/passive pattern of interaction. Further analysis showed that while collaborative learners succeeded in revising the majority of their errors correctly and had the greatest short-term writing development, the passive learners failed at both to a large extent. These findings are discussed drawing on relevant theoretical and practical literature, and implications for second language (L2) writing instructors and researchers are suggested.

Keyword negotiated feedback, patterns of peer interaction, revision outcome, sociocultural theory, writing development

Implementing explicit pronunciation instruction: The case of a nonnative English-speaking teacher

Joshua Gordon, University of Northern Iowa, USA

Abstract Studies in second language teacher cognition (SLTC) of pronunciation teachers have increased in the last 10 years, due mainly to the fact that the decisions teachers make about explicit instruction are critical for the development of second language (L2) pronunciation in learners. Although recent research has indicated that nonnative-speaking teachers (NNSTs) can be as effective as native-speaking teachers (NSTs) in pronunciation instruction, and that their training needs resemble those of NSTs, the way NNSTs implement L2 pronunciation instruction has not been studied extensively. This is important to understand given the number of NNSTs of English worldwide at present, and because of the potential benefits of nonnative-speaking pronunciation teaching models in general. In this study, I analysed the way an experienced NNST implemented explicit pronunciation instruction in a context of English as a foreign language (EFL) to understand both his actual teaching practices and the rationale behind such practices. Using a framework of knowledge base of language teaching, this study demonstrates how factors such as previous teaching and learning experiences, teaching context, and L2 learner characteristics shaped and guided the techniques the teacher implemented in class. These results are discussed in terms of implications for pronunciation teaching and teacher training purposes.

Keyword knowledge base of teaching, nonnative-speaking teachers, pronunciation teachers, pronunciation teaching and learning, teacher cognition

Exploring peer feedback processes and peer feedback meta-dialogues with learners of academic and business English

Joshua Gordon, University of Northern Iowa, USA

Abstract Peer feedback has been proposed as a way to boost student feedback literacy and learners’ evaluative judgment. However, the notion of peer feedback and its related processes present numerous challenges for teachers and learners. By adopting the principles of Exploratory Practice with my undergraduates studying academic and business English, I explored why my learners did not seem to view peer feedback as worthwhile, unpacking their attitudes and beliefs in this area of practice using both traditional surveys and the idea of classroom meta-dialogues. I attempted to develop evaluative judgment skills and proactive recipience by tailoring peer feedback processes around oral presentations, a central course component and assessment task for both groups of learners. Survey responses, classroom discussion (the meta-dialogues), observation, and reflection revealed that, overall, my learners were positively predisposed to peer feedback whilst, at the same time, only moderately enthusiastic about the usefulness of the actual peer feedback they received. In a minority of cases, learners resisted peer feedback processes strongly, reflecting the complex interplay of linguistic, cultural and affective factors that represent peer feedback in practice. My learners, at first, struggled to be proactively recipient but helped to identify tensions around tailoring peer feedback. I reflect on the learner resistance encountered and the personal implications for my own teaching. I also suggest ways that language teachers can scaffold proactive recipience and enact tailored peer feedback in a way that is inclusive of both composers’ and recipients’ needs. Finally, I provide a practitioner vantage point on peer feedback, contributing to a diversity of research perspectives in this area.

Co-constructing the assessment criteria for EFL writing by instructors and students: A participative approach to constructively aligning the CEFR, curricula, teaching and learning

Huahui Zhao, University of Leeds, UK

Beibei Zhao, Zhejiang Shuren University, China

Abstract The current assessment in language classrooms prevailingly utilizes the criteria provided by instructors, regarding learners as passive recipients of assessment. The current study drew upon sustainable assessment and the community of practice to highlight the importance of involving learners in co-constructing the assessment criteria and argued that using the criteria provided by instructors could lead to discrepancy between assessment, teaching, and learning. It adopted a participatory approach and investigated how to involve learners in co-constructing the assessment criteria with instructors in tertiary English writing instruction in China, based on the European Language Profile (ELP), an evolved version of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Two writing instructors and 146 tertiary students played different, yet interactive roles in adapting the assessment criteria in the local context. Instructors drafted the criteria in line with curricula, teaching, learning and learners. Learners utilized the draft criteria in a training session and suggested possible modifications to the criteria in a survey. Suggestions were used to revise the descriptors alongside teachers’ reflections via reflective logs. A follow-up survey explored students’ perceptions of the feasibility and usefulness of the modified descriptors to investigate the effectiveness of co-constructing the assessment criteria for learning and reveal further improvement if necessary. Vigilant decision-making processes were thickly described regarding how assessment descriptors were selected, arranged, and modified to constructively align them with curricula, teaching, and learning. Statistical and thematic analyses were conducted to examine the accessibility, feasibility, and usefulness of the assessment descriptors prior to and after the modifications. Results substantiated the effectiveness and thus the importance of co-constructing assessment criteria for enhancing the quality of assessment criteria and developing learners’ cognitive and metacognitive knowledge of writing and assessment. Implications for language tutors regarding co-constructing assessment criteria in local contexts were deliberated on at the end of the article.

第4期摘要

Learner-generated content and the lexical recall of beginning-level learners of Chinese as a foreign language

Craig Lambert, Curtin University, Australia

Qian Gong, Curtin University, Australia

Grace Zhang, Curtin University, Australia

Grace Zhang, Curtin University, Australia

Abstract This study investigates the effect of personal investment in the form of learner-generated content (LGC) on the lexical recall of beginning-level learners of Chinese. The study employed a 2 × 2 repeated-measures design with content at two levels – teacher-generated content or TGC, and learner-generated content or LGC – and time at two levels (immediate, delayed). Quantitative results were triangulated with qualitative thematic analyses of follow-up interviews. The study was conducted at an Australian university and aimed to identify a way of modifying current intentional vocabulary learning activities to increase learner investment in the learning process and improve retention. Participants completed two versions of a picture description activity that was commonly used to introduce and practice new vocabulary in the program. The first version (TGC) was based on a picture that Chinese teachers chose to illustrate ten words learners did not know and that were pedagogic targets. The second (LGC) was based on pictures that learners selected as being personally meaningful and that illustrated ten words that they did not know in Chinese but wanted to learn. Findings revealed significant differences in recall for LGC words over TGC words on both immediate and delayed post-tests, and a significant interaction between content and time, demonstrating a faster rate of decay in memory for TGC words than LGC words. Follow-up interviews indicated that LGC words were more meaningful to learners in terms of relevance, interest, emotional value and associations with world knowledge. Results are discussed in terms of how LGC vocabulary activities might be used in second language (L2) courses.

Key words Chinese as a foreign language, learner-generated content (LGC), lexical recall, Personal Investment Theory, vocabulary instruction, vocabulary teaching

Tall trees; weak roots? A model of barriers to English language proficiency confronting displaced medical healthcare professionals

Gabriel John Roberts, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK

Abstract Although language assessments for medical professionals in the UK are changing, there is still a need for them to demonstrate their proficiency in English before working in the National Health Service (NHS). When providing English for specific purposes (ESP) courses for retraining refugee doctors, we need to consider all the potential barriers that every language learner faces, as well as professional barriers that may challenge them as a specific group. The following article examines the linguistic (and psycholinguistic) barriers that confront this intelligent, motivated and diligent group of people, and puts forward a model that teachers, course planners and material designers may use for their English language training.

Key words academic language skills, challenges, English language proficiency, English medium of instruction (EMI), higher education, Japan

Beyond the threshold: Exploring English language proficiency, linguistic challenges, and academic language skills of Japanese students in an English medium instruction programme

Ikuya Aizawa

Heath Rose, University of Oxford, UK

Gene Thompson, Rikkyo University, Japan

Samantha Curle, University of Bath, UK

Abstract This article examines the relationship between Japanese undergraduate students’ English language proficiency and English language-related challenges faced when studying an international business course through English. It also examines English language proficiency thresholds students need to reach in each academic skill (i.e. reading, listening, speaking and writing) to experience a lower level of linguistic challenges. A total of 264 students were surveyed in Tokyo, Japan, and 13 follow-up interviews were conducted. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the underlying factors in the EMI (English medium of instruction) Challenges Scale loaded onto a priori assumptions of dimensions falling along skill-based constructs. Analysis of questionnaire data revealed that English language proficiency (i.e. TOEIC score) was a statistically significant predictor of challenges in the EMI programme. While no clear discernible threshold was observed, the differences in perceived ease of study at different levels of English proficiency influenced the challenges students reported for each academic skill. Interview data uncovered the multi-faceted nature of how the thresholds are determined not only by language proficiency but also by other factors, such as prior content knowledge, motivation, and the classroom learning environment. Practical implications for pedagogy are also discussed.

Key words academic language skills, challenges, English language proficiency, English medium of instruction (EMI), higher education, Japan

Understanding language teacher wellbeing: An ESM study of daily stressors and uplifts

Tammy Gregersen, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Sarah Mercer, University of Graz, Austria

Peter MacIntyre, Cape Breton University, Canada

Kyle Talbot, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Austria

Claire Ann Banga, University of Edinburgh, UK

Abstract This study focuses on understanding language teachers’ lived experiences of their stressors and positive uplifts from a holistic perspective covering their professional lives in school, their personal lives beyond, and the connection between the two. The aim was to explore the nature of teachers’ experiences of stress and how they spilled over from work into home domains. We also were keen to understand the dynamics of their experiences of stress and how their perception of daily stressors was related to their overall sense of wellbeing as well as their life and chronic stressors. The data were collected via a specially created app, which collected survey data and experience sampling method (ESM) data from language teachers across the globe. Teachers’ wellbeing was investigated using the PERMA Profiler (Butler & Kern, 2016), their personality using Goldberg’s (1992) Big Five measurement tool, and a questionnaire on chronic stressors and stressful life events. From a larger sample (n = 47), a set of 6 case studies of teachers who scored highly for wellbeing and those who scored low on wellbeing was examined to explore in depth and across time, the relationships between overall wellbeing, chronic stressors and stressful life events, the experience of daily stressors, and perceptions of health. The findings point to the complexity of the relationships between stress, wellbeing, and health as well as the dynamism of stress and the relationships between stress experienced in the workplace and at home. The study has important implications for research in this area and reveals the merits of working with this innovative data collection tool.

Key words Big Five Personality, experience sampling method (ESM), PERMA, stressors and uplifts, teacher wellbeing, work life balance

Towards an understanding of translanguaging in EMI teacher education classrooms

Rui Yuan, Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Macau, China

Min Yang, Department of English Language Education, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Abstract This study aims to explore a teacher educator’s perceptions and practice of translanguaging in his education classrooms as a teacher of English as a medium of instruction (EMI). Adopting a qualitative case study approach, the research revealed that the teacher educator used three translanguaging strategies (i.e. integrating academic discourse with everyday discourse, linking verbal and other semiotic resources, and using students’ first language) to create a ‘translanguaging space’ in his EMI classrooms for content teaching and learning. The findings also showed that the teacher educator’s translanguaging practice was both planned and generative, depending on his situated teaching context which presented him with various teaching opportunities and challenges (e.g. students’ resistance and university policy). The study highlights the importance of teacher educators’ reflective practice in their execution and improvement of translanguaging practice in EMI classroom settings.

Key words EMI, multilingual classrooms, teacher education, translanguaging

Secondary school students’ enjoyment of English private tutoring: An L2 motivational self perspective

Kevin Wai Ho Yung, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Ming Ming Chiu, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract  As many students worldwide receive second language (L2) English private tutoring (EPT) that shadows school curricula, examining student perceptions of it is essential to understanding their L2 learning. From the L2 Motivational Self perspective, students’ ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self and L2 learning experience are linked to student enjoyment of EPT. This study explores these links via analysis of survey responses of 2,216 Secondary Six (Grade 12) students who attended a company’s L2 EPT lectures in Hong Kong. Most of these students (80%) enjoyed EPT. They were more likely to enjoy EPT if they perceived more financial resources in their families, attended schools taught in Chinese (students’ first language), had internalized instrumental goals, liked English, were not influenced by advertisements to attend EPT, attended face-to-face tutoring (rather than video tutoring), had a specific tutor, or liked their EPT tutor more than their English teacher. This study offers theoretical implications and directions for further research in EPT and L2 motivation.

Key words cram schooling, English as a second language, English private tutoring, enjoyment, L2 motivation, 

L2 Motivational Self System

Examining the impact of abdominal enhancement techniques to assist Chinese-speaking English learners’ phoneme pronunciation

Michael Yeldham, Jilin University, China

Abstract  Instruction in second language (L2) English phoneme pronunciation almost invariably includes a focus on improving the learners’ use of their articulatory organs to pronounce the relevant sounds. However, the pronunciation of many English sounds also relies on effort from the abdominal region, and under-utilization of this region can often contribute to pronunciation difficulties. For Chinese-speaking learners of English, such relevant sounds include the long vowel and diphthong sounds, particularly the phonemes /iː/, /uː/ and /eɪ/, and also the voiced fricative consonants, /z/, /ð/, /v/ and /ʒ/. Consequently, this study examined the impact of teaching adult Chinese-speaking English learners to enhance the use of their abdomen when pronouncing these sounds. The main focus of the research was a quasi-experimental component, where both an experimental and control group were taught the same way in all aspects, with the only point of difference being that the experimental group was taught the abdominal techniques. Longitudinal multiple-case studies of learners from the experimental group were also employed to examine for any post-course maintenance of the phonemes as well as possible reasons for this. Results from the quasi-experimental component showed that it was advantageous to teach learners the abdominal techniques. Also, there were some discernible trends in the learners’ post-course maintenance of the sounds. This article then discusses pedagogical implications of the study, and provides suggestions for future research of the abdominal techniques.

Key words abdominal enhancement techniques, Chinese learners of English, English pronunciation, phoneme pronunciation, pronunciation instruction

The impact of L2 writing instructional approaches on student writing motivation and engagement

Shulin Yu, Faculty of Education, University of Macau

Lianjiang Jiang, Nara University of Education, Japan

Abstract  While previous research has investigated the effectiveness of various second language (L2) writing instructional approaches upon students’ writing performance, whether and how the instructional approaches relate to students’ writing motivation and engagement remains largely unexplored. This study used the adapted Motivation and Engagement Scale for University/College students and investigated how the three L2 writing instructional approaches (i.e. product-, process-, and genre-oriented) were associated with L2 students’ writing motivation and engagement. A sample of 1,190 students from 35 universities in China participated in the study. Results show that the product-oriented approach induced both adaptive and maladaptive motivation and engagement whereas the process-oriented approach led to student engagement in writing with limited impact on motivation. The genre-oriented approach emerged as the one that best promoted students’ adaptive motivation and engagement in L2 writing. The findings shed light on the motivational potentials of various L2 writing pedagogies and provided insights for how students’ writing motivation and engagement can be promoted with relevant L2 writing instructional approaches.

Key words genre-oriented approach, instructional approach, process-oriented approach, writing motivation and engagement

Examining fluctuations in the WTC of Japanese EFL speakers: Language proficiency, affective and conditional factors

Rintaro Sato, Nara University of Education, Japan

Abstract Willingness to communicate (WTC), which plays a crucial role in second or foreign language learning, has a dynamic and complex nature, fluctuating during communicative events. This study examines how the situational WTC of four Japanese speakers of English as a foreign language (EFL) emerges and fluctuates, focusing on the roles of language proficiency and affective and conditional factors. Low-intermediate and advanced speakers were engaged in an interactive, communicative activity with an interlocutor. All utterances were recorded, transcribed, and analysed and combined with the qualitative data from participants’ self-ratings and a stimulated recall interview after the activity to assess fluctuations in WTC. The findings indicate that levels of WTC are influenced differently between low-intermediate and advanced speakers. Although the WTC of all speakers was negatively affected when they sensed a lack of English proficiency, low-intermediate speakers were affected by interest in the topic, influence of interlocutors on sense of security, and self-confidence, while opportunity to talk about oneself and one’s opinions contributed to the WTC of advanced speakers. It is suggested that teaches of EFL should be considerate of these factors that can affect EFL learners’ WTC.

Key words affective factors, conditional factors, English as a foreign language, language proficiency, willingness to communicate

The imagination effect when using textual or diagrammatic material to learn a second language

Olga Ignatova, University of New South Wales, Australia

Slava Kalyuga, University of New South Wales, Australia

John Sweller, University of New South Wales, Australia

Abstract The imagination effect occurs when students learn better from imagining concepts and procedures rather than from studying them. Cognitive load theory explains the effect by better use of available working memory resources and increased productive, intrinsic cognitive load. The effect has been found in numerous empirical studies. However, in the majority of studies demonstrating the effect, visual/spatial information has been used: the type of information that is believed to be easy for imagining. The reported two experiments investigated if an imagination effect could be obtained using verbal information in the area of learning a second language. The results indicated that while textual material was expectedly more difficult for learning than diagrammatic material, asking learners to imagine textual material did improve performance. Cognitive load theory has been used as a theoretical framework to interpret the results.

Key words cognitive load theory, imagination effect, second language learning, working memory

Harnessing the musician advantage: Short-term musical training affects non-native cue weighting of linguistic pitch

Seth Wiener, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Evan D. Bradley, Penn State Brandywine, USA

Abstract Lexical tone languages like Mandarin Chinese require listeners to discriminate among different pitch patterns. A syllable spoken with a rising pitch (e.g. bí ‘nose’) carries a different meaning than the same syllable spoken with a falling pitch (e.g. bì ‘arm’). For native speakers (L1) of a non-tonal language, accurate perception of tones in a second language (L2) is notoriously difficult. Musicians, however, have typically shown an aptitude for lexical tone learning due to the unique perceptual demands of music. This study tested whether musical effects can be exploited to improve linguistic abilities in the general population. A pre-test, 8-week training, post-test design was used to measure L1 English participants’ sensitivity to tone. Individual Differences Scaling was used to measure participants’ weighting of pitch height and movement cues. Participants took part in classroom Mandarin learning only (+L2), musical ear training only (+Music), or classroom learning combined with musical training (+L2+Music). An L1 Mandarin group served as a baseline. At pre-test, mean sensitivity to tone and multidimensional scaling results were similar across all three L1 English groups. After training, all three L1 English groups improved in mean sensitivity, though only the +L2+Music group did so at a significant rate. Multidimensional scaling revealed that all groups increased their weighting of the more informative pitch movement cue at roughly equal rates. Short-term musical training thus affected change in cue weighting of linguistic pitch in a manner comparable to that occurring after a semester of L2 classroom learning. When combined with classroom learning, short-term musical training resulted in even greater sensitivity to pitch movement cues. These results contribute to models of music-language interaction and suggest that focused application of non-linguistic acoustic training can improve phonetic perception in ways that are relevant to language learning.

Key words cue weighting, Mandarin lexical tone, music, pitch perception, second language learning

Facilitating English L2 learners’ intercultural competence and learning of English in a Taiwanese university

Hung-Chun Wang, National Taiwan Normal University

Abstract This article reports on a practitioner research study that adopted the intercultural approach to integrating Vietnamese and Indonesian cultural issues into Taiwanese university classes for English as a foreign language (EFL). A content-based course design was developed to infuse cultural topics including food culture, lifestyle and interpersonal interaction into an 18-week English curriculum with a dual focus on facilitating students’ intercultural competence and learning of English. This study recounts the teacher researcher’s process of developing and implementing this course; it also evaluates the effects of the course by analysing students’ perceptions based on data collected from an intercultural competence scale, a course evaluation survey and a semi-structured interview in two consecutive semesters. Based on the results, the students showed obvious growth in their intercultural competence; many of them also perceived that the course facilitated their learning of English. Overall, this study offers English language teachers novel insights with regard to developing and administering an EFL course featuring the teaching and learning of intercultural issues.

期刊简介

Language Teaching Research is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes research within the area of second or foreign language teaching. Although articles are written in English, the journal welcomes studies dealing with the teaching of languages other than English as well.

语言教学研究是同行评审期刊。本刊主要发表第二语言或外语教学领域的相关研究。文章发表但不限于英语教学研究。

The journal is a venue for studies that demonstrate sound research methods and which report findings that have clear pedagogical implications.

本刊为使用了明晰研究方法，并报告有明确教学意义发现的研究提供了一个展示平台。

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https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/ltra/27/2

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